June 2014

The Velodrome - France

Igneous, Structural Geology, tourism 4:55 PM

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The Velodrome is a large recumbent fold spilled southward, formed at the end of the Tertiary (23 to 5 million years) at the Alpine front.<br />
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 It consists of sedimentary series (also known as molasses) composed mainly of sand, sandstone and conglomerate (rock composed of pebbles welded by a rocky cement thinner) produced by erosion of the Alps. Molasses accumulated at the foot of the reliefs in the Alpine sedimentary basin Valensole, along which the fold of the Velodrome was formed. The term evokes the Velodrome, used by geologists from the 50s, means the marine basin filled and distorted. <br />
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The Velodrome Geological Reserve of Haute-Provence is a crease that draws world-class two-thirds of a velodrome. Its geometry dramatically to his being visited annually by many geologists and geology students. Since the 70s, the Velodrome is considered a typical example of said fold growth, formed as and when the successive deposition of sedimentary strata by their gradual shift due to tectonic stress.<br />
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Researchers at the Laboratory of Tectonics (INSU-CNRS, Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6) after ten years of measurements show micro-tectonic in a recent article in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of France that celebrates the fold is not case study that was thought.<br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1cfVxzU4Wz8/U613KzGfrOI/AAAAAAAABLw/igHwvvS9MvM/s1600/10517014_815294628483704_74555384_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="The Velodrome - France" border="0" height="422" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1cfVxzU4Wz8/U613KzGfrOI/AAAAAAAABLw/igHwvvS9MvM/s1600/10517014_815294628483704_74555384_n.jpg" title="" width="640" /></a></div>
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</span>Name: The Velodrome<br />
Location: Viel Esclangon, Hautes Alpes, France<br />
Sedimentation: Miocene<br />
Formation: End Tertiary<br />
Length: 3kilometers<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , "lucida grande" , "tahoma" , "verdana" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.63636302947998px; line-height: 18px; text-align: right; white-space: pre-wrap;">
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The Velodrome - France

The Velodrome is a large recumbent fold spilled southward, formed at the end of the Tertiary (23 to 5 million years) at the Alpine front...

The Hot spring

Geology, tourism, volcano 10:26 PM

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A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater from the Earth's crust. There are geothermal hot springs in many locations all over the crust of the earth.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cfe9UIttv3A/U6sgyC_7z7I/AAAAAAAABKU/EhYhiI4BKy0/s1600/1024px-Grand_Prismatic_Spring_and_Midway_Geyser_Basin_from_above.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="420" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cfe9UIttv3A/U6sgyC_7z7I/AAAAAAAABKU/EhYhiI4BKy0/s1600/1024px-Grand_Prismatic_Spring_and_Midway_Geyser_Basin_from_above.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small; text-align: left;">Grand Prismatic Spring and Midway Geyser Basin in Yellowstone National Park</span></td></tr>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Sources_of_heat">Sources of heat</span></h2>
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<span style="color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.399999618530273px;">The water issuing from a hot spring is heated by geothermal heat, i.e., heat from the Earth's mantle. In general, the temperature of rocks within the earth increases with depth. The rate of temperature increase with depth is known as the geothermal gradient. If water percolates deeply enough into the crust, it will be heated as it comes into contact with hot rocks. The water from hot springs in non-volcanic areas is heated in this manner.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.399999618530273px;">Steam Crepuscular rays at Mammoth Hot Springs</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.399999618530273px;">In active volcanic zones such as Yellowstone National Park, water may be heated by coming into contact with magma (molten rock). The high temperature gradient near magma may cause water to be heated enough that it boils or becomes superheated. If the water becomes so hot that it builds steam pressure and erupts in a jet above the surface of the Earth, it is called a geyser. If the water only reaches the surface in the form of steam, it is called a fumarole. If the water is mixed with mud and clay, it is called a mud pot.</span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-gL-iWy0dG7Q/U6shzKvwsPI/AAAAAAAABKg/0ynSiOodaQA/s1600/Jigokudani_hotspring_in_Nagano_Japan_001.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-gL-iWy0dG7Q/U6shzKvwsPI/AAAAAAAABKg/0ynSiOodaQA/s1600/Jigokudani_hotspring_in_Nagano_Japan_001.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Macaques enjoying an open air hot spring or "onsen" in Nagano</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QBXfPkyjy0M/U6sh21v_L0I/AAAAAAAABKo/pLxeyMQJ-9E/s1600/Churning_Caldron.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="338" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QBXfPkyjy0M/U6sh21v_L0I/AAAAAAAABKo/pLxeyMQJ-9E/s1600/Churning_Caldron.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Churning Caldron in Yellowstone National Park</span></td></tr>
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The Hot spring

A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater from the Earth's crust. There are geothe...

Pelagic Sediment

Geology, sedimentary 8:31 PM

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<b>Pelagic sediment or pelagite</b> is a fine-grained sediment that accumulates as the result of the settling of particles to the floor of the open ocean, far from land. These particles consist primarily of either the microscopic, calcareous or siliceous shells of phytoplankton or zooplankton; clay-size siliciclastic sediment; or some mixture of these.<br>
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Trace amounts of meteoric dust and variable amounts of volcanic ash also occur within pelagic sediments. Based upon the composition of the ooze, there are three main types of pelagic sediments: siliceous oozes, calcareous oozes, and red clays.<br>
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The composition of pelagic sediments is controlled by three main factors. The first factor is the distance from major landmasses, which affects their dilution by terrigenous, or land-derived, sediment.<br>
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The second factor is water depth, which affects the preservation of both siliceous and calcareous biogenic particles as they settle to the ocean bottom. The final factor is ocean fertility, which controls the amount of biogenic particles produced in surface waters.<br>
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Pelagic Sediment

Pelagic sediment or pelagite is a fine-grained sediment that accumulates as the result of the settling of particles to the floor of the o...

Splendid Spessartine crystals

Minerals 3:29 PM

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<br /><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: #141823;"><b>Spessartine.</b></span></span><br /><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: #141823;"><br /><br />Formula:Mn32+Al2(SiO4)3<br />System:Isometric<br />Colour:Red, reddish orange, ...<br />Lustre:Vitreous<br />Hardness:6½ - 7½<br /><br />From: Wushan Spessartine Mine, Tongbei, Yunxiao Co., Zhangzhou Prefecture, Fujian Province, China.<br /><br /><br />Photo credit:  Minerales Talco</span></span></div>

Splendid Spessartine crystals

Spessartine. Formula:Mn32+Al2(SiO4)3 System:Isometric Colour:Red, reddish orange, ... Lustre:Vitreous Hardness:6½ - 7½ From: Wushan Sp...

Banded Iron Formations BIF

Geology, Igneous, Rocks 7:06 PM

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<i>Banded iron formations</i> (also known as banded ironstone formations or BIFs) are distinctive units of sedimentary rock that are almost always of Precambrian age.<br />
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Most of the major iron deposits worldwide occur in rocks called banded iron formations (or BIFs for short), which are finely layered sedimentary rocks composed of alternating chert (a form of quartz) and iron oxide bands.<br />
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Banded iron formations (BIFs) are chemically precipitated sedimentary rocks . They are composed of alternating thin (millimeter to centimeter scale) red, yellow, or cream colored layers of chert or jasper and black to dark gray iron oxides (predominantly magnetite and hematite), and/or iron carbonate (siderite) layers. Banded iron formations have greater than 15% sedimentary iron content. Banded iron formations are of economic interest as they host the world's largest iron ore deposits and many gold deposits.<br />
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Algoma-type banded iron formations were deposited as chemical sediments along with other sedimentary rocks (such as greywacke and shale) and volcanics in and adjacent to volcanic arcs and spreading centers. Iron and silica were derived from hydrothermal sources associated with volcanic centres. Algoma-type iron formations are common in Archean green-stone belts, but may also occur in younger rocks.<br />
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<tr><td><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-BceZQnoxpo8/U6hOiAa_HWI/AAAAAAAABI4/_uoiW2T9A_w/s1600/Banded_iron_formation_Dales_Gorge.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Banded Iron Formations" border="0" height="424" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-BceZQnoxpo8/U6hOiAa_HWI/AAAAAAAABI4/_uoiW2T9A_w/s1600/Banded_iron_formation_Dales_Gorge.jpg" title="" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px;">Banded iron formation, Karijini National Park, Western Australia</td></tr>
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Lake Superior-type banded iron formations were chemically precipitated on marine continental shelves and in shallow basins. They are commonly interlayered with other sedimentary or volcanic rocks such as shale and tuff . Most Lake Superior-type banded iron formations formed during the Paleoproterozoic, between 2.5 and 1.8 billion years ago. Prior to this, Earth's primitive atmosphere and oceans had little or no free oxygen to react with iron, resulting in high iron concentrations in seawater. Iron may have been derived from the weathering of iron-rich rocks, transported to the sea as water-soluble Fe<sup>+2</sup>.<br />
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Alternatively, or in addition, both iron and silica may have been derived from submarine magmatic and hydrothermal activity. Under calm, shallow marine conditions, the iron in seawater combined with oxygen released during photosynthesis by Cyanobacteria (primitive blue-green algae, which began to proliferate in near-surface waters in the Paleoproterozoic) to precipitate magnetite (Fe<sub>3</sub> O<sub>4</sub> ), which sank to the sea floor, forming an iron-rich layer.<br />
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It has been proposed that during periods when there was too great a concentration of oxygen (in excess of that required to bond with the iron in the seawater) due to an abundance of blue-green algae, the blue-green algae would have been reduced in numbers or destroyed. A temporary decrease in the oxygen content of the seawater then eventuated. When magnetite formation was impeded due to a reduction in the amount of oxygen in seawater, a layer of silica and/or carbonate was deposited. With subsequent reestablishment of Cyanobacteria (and thus renewed production of oxygen), precipitation of iron recommenced.<br />
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Repetitions of this cycle resulted in deposition of alternating iron-rich and silica- or carbonate-rich layers. Variations in the amount of iron in seawater, such as due to changes in volcanic activity, may have also led to rhythmic layering. The large lateral extent of individual thin layers implies changes in oxygen or iron content of seawater to be regional, and necessitates calm depositional conditions. Iron and silica-rich layers, originally deposited as amorphous gels, subsequently lithified to form banded iron formations.<br />
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The distribution of Lake Superior-type banded iron formations of the same age range in Precambrian cratons worldwide suggests that they record a period of global change in the oxygen content of the earth's atmosphere and oceans. Also, the worldwide abundance of large, calm, shallow platforms where cyanobacterial mats flourished and banded iron formations were deposited may imply a global rise in sea level.<br />
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Primary carbonate in banded iron formations may be replaced by silica during diagenesis or deformation. The pronounced layering in banded iron formations may be further accentuated during deformation by pressure solution; silica and/or carbonate are dissolved and iron oxides such as hematite may crystallize along pressure solution (stylolite) surfaces. <br />
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Banded iron formations are highly anisotropic rocks. When shortened parallel to their layering, they deform to form angular to rounded folds , kink bands, and box folds. Folds in banded iron formations are typically doubly plunging and conical. Banded iron formations may interact with hot fluids channeled along faults and more permeable, interbedded horizons such as dolomite during deformation. This may remove large volumes of silica, resulting in concentration of iron. Iron, in the form of microplaty hematite can also crystallize in structurally controlled sites such as fold hinges and along detachment faults. <br />
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If there is sufficient enrichment, an iron ore body is formed. Iron may also be leached, redeposited and concentrated during weathering to form supergene iron ore deposits. Fibrous growth of quartz and minerals such as crocidolite (an amphibole, also known as asbestiform riebeckite) commonly occurs in banded iron formations during deformation due to dilation between layers, especially in fold hinges. Replacement of crocidolite by silica produces shimmering brown, yellow and orange "tiger-eye," which is utilized in jewelry and for ornamental use.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif;">See also:</span><br />
<a href="https://www.geologyin.com/2018/07/scientists-discover-earths-youngest.html" target="_blank">Scientists Discover Earth's Youngest Banded Iron Formation </a></div>

Banded Iron Formations BIF

Banded iron formations (also known as banded ironstone formations or BIFs) are distinctive units of sedimentary rock that are almost a...

Amazing Emerald Crystal on Crystals

Minerals 11:14 PM

Amazing Emerald Crystal on Crystals

The same amazing Emerald specimen but this time photographed with a real camera and not a phone camera. Note the difference in color acc...

The Triple Frontier where the Borders of 3 Countries Meet.

tourism 10:15 PM

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<b>The Triple Frontier</b> is the tri-border region where the borders of 3 countries meet: Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. While there are many triple borders in the world, this in particular is formed naturally by the convergence of two rivers - the Parana River and the Iguazu River.<br />
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The Triple Frontier is an important tourist area, within the touristic subregion of the Región de las Aguas Grandes. Visitors can see the Tancredo Neves International bridge, which connects the Argentine city of Puerto Iguazú and its Brazilian neighbor, Foz do Iguaçu. Over the La Amistad International Bridge that crosses the Parana river, you can get from Foz to Ciudad del Este. At the convergence of the borders, each of the three bordering countries has erected an obelisk, painted in the national colors of the country in which it is located. All three countries can be seen from each of the obelisks.<br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-BJgBNUWsXNI/U6SHO4Tiz3I/AAAAAAAABIE/P1hiuTAkRVM/s1600/BqXuugWCcAAetMD.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="424" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-BJgBNUWsXNI/U6SHO4Tiz3I/AAAAAAAABIE/P1hiuTAkRVM/s1600/BqXuugWCcAAetMD.jpg" width="640" /></a><br />
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Of the 3 monuments, the most accessible is the Argentine side, because this landmark is very close to the urban area of Puerto Iguazu, less than 2 km from the center. The Landmark itself is a pyramid painted with the Argentine flag colors (sky-blue and white), and dated 1903 (year of the border treaty with Brazil). Further away we can see some poles with the flags of the 3 countries, a few plates badges and a small monument of the Malvinas Islands (Falkland Islands). Close by the monument are gift shops selling local products and souvenirs.<br />
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The Triple Frontier where the Borders of 3 Countries Meet.

The Triple Frontier is the tri-border region where the borders of 3 countries meet: Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. While there are man...

California Syncline

folds, Structural Geology 2:16 PM

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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-9kZM8lQGOsQ/U6QYCgyiSII/AAAAAAAABHY/isVWLxMz5fk/s1600/fitzgerald.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="California Syncline" border="0" height="480" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-9kZM8lQGOsQ/U6QYCgyiSII/AAAAAAAABHY/isVWLxMz5fk/s1600/fitzgerald.jpg" title="" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white;">Fitzgerald Marine Preserve, San Mateo County, CA</span></td></tr>
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A syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the structure.  Synclines are typically a downward fold (synform), termed a synformal syncline (i.e. a trough), but synclines that point upwards can be found when strata have been overturned and folded (an antiformal syncline).<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Syncline in the lower parking lot of Calico Ghost Town; <br />the ductile folding is at the base and the brittle is above.<div class="mw-mmv-image-desc-div">
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Calico Ghost Town near Barstow, California.</div>
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California Syncline

Fitzgerald Marine Preserve, San Mateo County, CA A syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the structure. Sync...

Fulgurites: When Lightning Strikes Sand, Magic is Formed

Structural Geology 1:29 PM

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Fulgurites (from the Latin fulgur meaning thunderbolt) are a variety of the mineraloid lechatelierite.<br />
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They are natural hollow glass tubes formed inquartzose sand, silica, or soil by lightning strikes. They are formed when lightning with a temperature of at least 1,800 °C (3,270 °F) instantaneously melts silica on a conductive surface and fuses grains together; the fulgurite tube is the cooled product. This process occurs over a period of around one second, and leaves evidence of the lightning path and its dispersion over the surface. They are sometimes referred to as petrified lightning.<br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-w8F_qktsJxE/U6HchOduIqI/AAAAAAAABGw/OqMq8q3CXyY/s1600/10491096_10203537258664125_8134652302508101139_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Amazing Fulgurites  " border="0" height="540" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-w8F_qktsJxE/U6HchOduIqI/AAAAAAAABGw/OqMq8q3CXyY/s1600/10491096_10203537258664125_8134652302508101139_n.jpg" title="" width="640" /></a></div>
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Fulgurites can also be produced when a high voltage electrical distribution network breaks and the lines fall onto a conductive surface with sand beneath. The glass formed is called lechatelierite which may also be formed by meteorite impact and volcanic explosions. Because it isamorphous, fulgurite is classified as a mineraloid. Fulgurites can have deep penetrations, sometimes occurring as far as 15 metres (49 ft) below the surface that was struck.<i>
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<img alt="Fulgurites  " border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-OsIkNAdKxWg/U6HckUtfHcI/AAAAAAAABG4/AJAEcKOhvkg/s1600/La-Fulgurite-pierre-de-foudre.jpg" title="" /> </div>
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The tubes can be up to several centimeters in diameter, and meters long. The longest fulgurite to have been found is a little over 4.9 m (16 ft) in length, and was found in northern Florida, USA. Their color varies depending on the composition of the sand they formed in, ranging from black or tan to green or a translucent white. </div>
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The interior is normally very smooth or lined with fine bubbles; the exterior is generally coated with rough sand particles and is porous. They are rootlike in appearance and often show branching or small holes. Fulgurites occasionally form as glazing on solid rocks (sometimes referred to as an exogenic fulgurite).<i></i><br />
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Fulgurites: When Lightning Strikes Sand, Magic is Formed

Fulgurites (from the Latin fulgur meaning thunderbolt) are a variety of the mineraloid lechatelierite. They are natural hollow glass tub...

Tectonic Settings of Metal Deposits

edu, Geochemistry, Geology, Mining, Tectonic 10:04 PM

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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-y3xEFXc76LY/VnrMCWeUi2I/AAAAAAAAHbc/KfZOh41aoQ4/s1600/Tectonic%2BSettings%2Bof%2BMetal%2BDeposits.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Tectonic Settings of Metal Deposits" border="0" height="410" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-y3xEFXc76LY/VnrMCWeUi2I/AAAAAAAAHbc/KfZOh41aoQ4/s640/Tectonic%2BSettings%2Bof%2BMetal%2BDeposits.jpg" title="" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">From Skinner and Porter, 1987</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">Ore Deposits and Plate Tectonics</span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: red;">P</span><span style="color: black;">late tectonics, like crustal evolution, provides a basis for understanding the distribution and origin of mineral and energy deposits. The relationship of plate tectonics and mineral deposits is significant on three counts:</span></span></div>
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<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Geological processes operating due to energy released at plate boundaries control the process of mineral deposition.</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Mineral deposits form in particular tectonic settings which are governed by plate tectonics.</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Reconstruction of fragmented continents can provide a useful basis for exploration of new mineral deposits.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;"><span style="color: red;">S</span><span style="color: black;">everal requirements must be fulfilled in any tectonic setting for the production and accumulation of minerals. A number of tectonic settings meet these requirements:</span><br />
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<b><u><span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit;">I. DEPOSITS AT OCEANIC RIDGES (DIVERGENT PLATE MARGINS)</span></u></b></h4>
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<li><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: #3333ff;"> </span><span style="color: black;">Hydrothermal activity at the ridges gives rise to a) Sulfide deposits and b) Metalliferous sediments on the flanks of ridges.  Important metallic deposits formed are Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, Au and Ag. In the Red Sea metalliferous sediments containing Fe, Zn and Cu are being deposited.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Mn oxide deposits are important at some ridges Eg the TAG Hydrothermal field on the Atlantic Ridge.</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Ultramafic rocks in ophiolites containing asbestos, chromite and nickel ores. These are generally accessible in Phanerozoic orogenic belts to which sites they have been transported due to plate movement.</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Podiform chromite deposits associated with serpentinized ultramafic rocks.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: black;">Cyprus Type massive sulfide deposits (Cu-Fe rich) are also associated with ophiolites and represent hydrothermal deposits formed at ocean ridges.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Several types of mineral deposits appear to show a genetic relationship to either the hot mantle plume itself or the tracks it produces.</span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit;"><b style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;"><u>II. DEPOSITS AT CONVERGENT PLATE MARGINS</u></b></span></h4>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: red;">M</span><span style="color: black;">etallic deposits are commonly found at both continental and arc convergent plate margins. Along the Circum-Pacific Belt major metallic deposits occur in western North and South America, Japan, Philippines, New Zealand and Indonesia. More than half of the world's supply of copper comes from the Porphyry Copper Deposits of this region. Important deposits associated with present and former convergent margins are:</span></span></div>
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<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Base metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Mo).</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Precious metals (Pt, Au, Ag).</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Other metals (Sn, W, Sb, Hg). (Red Bed uranium deposits are also associated with convergent boundaries Eg SW United States).</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;"><span style="color: red;">Z</span><span style="color: black;">oning of mineral deposits forming at convergent margins is apparent Eg in the Andes, going from west to east, the various zones encountered are:</span></span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: black;">a) contact metasomatic Fe- deposits;</span><br />
<span style="color: black;">b) Cu-Ag and Ag veins;</span><br />
<span style="color: black;">c) Porphypy Cu-Mo deposits;</span><br />
<span style="color: black;">d) Pb-Zn-Ag veins and contact metasomatic deposits; and</span><br />
<span style="color: black;">e) Sn deposits.</span></span></blockquote>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;"><span style="color: red;">T</span><span style="color: black;">hese zones are caused due to progressive liberation of metals from the descending slab, with Sn coming from a depth of 300 Km. The metals are derived from some combination of the descending slab and the overlying mantle wedge. They move upwards in magmas or fluids and are concentrated in late hydrothermal and magmatic fluids.</span></span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: red;">P</span><span style="color: black;">etroleum occurs in the back-arc basins in arc convergent margins where organic matter is trapped and there is a lack of free circulation so that its oxidation is prevented. Geothermal heat facilitates conversion of organic matter to petroleum, and accompanying deformation forms traps for accumulation of petroleum.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: red;">P</span><span style="color: black;">otential geothermal fields also occur along convergent margins.</span><br />
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<b><u><span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit;">III. DEPOSITS AT COLLISION BOUNDARIES</span></u></b></h4>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: red;">A</span> <span style="color: black;">variety of local tectonic settings exist along collision plate margins. Most of the deposits that occur here have formed in diverse tectonic settings and have been transported to the collision zones. Consequently, a variety of metallic deposits are abundant here:</span></span></div>
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<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Deposits generally related with oceanic ridges (ophiolites).</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Those associated with convergent plate margins.</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Mineral deposits associated with cratonic assemblages.</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Deposits associated with continental rifts.</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Deposits genetically related to collision zones are hydrocarbons which may accumulate in foreland basins associated with such zones, Eg the Persian Gulf SW of the Zagros Suture in Iran.</span></li>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit;"><b style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;"><u>IV. DEPOSITS IN CRATONIC RIFT SYSTEMS</u></b></span></h4>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Regional uplift and doming usually result when a continent comes to rest over a hotspot and huge volumes of magma rise to the surface. Extensional failure of the lithopheric crust may occur with continued doming, triggering the development of a triple junction - a three armed continental rift system. Typically, one arm of the rift fails remaining a fissure in the crust known as an aulacogen, while the remaining two arms open to form an oceanic basin. The prevalence of three armed rifts is revealed by reassembling the continents surrounding the Atlantic Ocean to their positions before Pangea split up. In most cases two of the arms were incorporated into the Atlantic, while the third remained as a blind rift extending into the continent.</span></blockquote>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: red;">R</span><span style="color: black;">ifting follows crustal doming in response to hot-spot activity in the mantle.</span></span></blockquote>
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<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Granites intruded at this stage have associated Sn and fluorite deposits.</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Evaporites accumulate in the rifts during the more advanced stages, with Pb-Zn-Ag deposits in limestones forming during the early and middle stages of rifting. These are followed by oceanic metalliferous deposits.</span></li>
<li><span style="color: black; font-family: inherit;">Aulacogens are characterized by the presence of fluorite, barite, carbonatites (with Nb, P, REE, U, Th etc) and Sn-bearing granites.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Geothermal fields occur along the rifts due to the upwelling of the asthenosphere.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: red;">C</span><span style="color: black;">arbonatites (unusual igneous rock rich in calcite and other carbonate minerals which are considered to be mantle derived), kimberlites, and alkaline granites within or adjacent to rifts provide a major source of metallic and other minerals.</span><br />
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: inherit;"><b style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-left;"><u>V. DEPOSITS IN CRATONIC BASINS</u></b></span></h4>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: red;">M</span><span style="color: black;">arginal and intracontinental cratonic basins provide a favourable setting for accumulation of organic matter. During the opening of a cratonic rift, seawater moves into the basin and evaporation exceeds inflow, giving rise to the formation of evaporites. The environment is characterized by restricted circulation and hence organic matter is preserved leading to the accumulation of petroleum. With continued rifting, circulation becomes unrestricted and deposition of evaporites and organic matter ceases.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: red;">H</span><span style="color: black;">igh geothermal gradients beneath the opening rift and increase in pressure due to burial by sediments facilitates the conversion of organic matter to petroleum. In the final stages of the opening of the basin, the salt beds may begin to rise as salt domes forming traps for oil and gas. Oil and gas may also be trapped in structural and stratigraphic traps as they move up due to increasing temperature and pressure, Eg the Red Sea.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="color: red;">T</span><span style="color: black;">his speculation is lent support by the fact that around the Atlantic there is a close geographic and geologic relationship between hydrocarbons and salt accumulations.</span></span></div>
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Tectonic Settings of Metal Deposits

From Skinner and Porter, 1987 Ore Deposits and Plate Tectonics P late tectonics, like crustal evolution, provides a basis for un...

Cross Section Interpretation Exercise

Stratigraphy 1:34 PM

Cross Section Interpretation Exercise

Using the laws of original horizontality, superposition, and cross-cutting relationships interpret the order of the formation of featu...

The Difference between Rocks and Minerals .

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<strong style="background-color: white;">mineral</strong><span style="background-color: white;">—A naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic solid substance having a definite chemical composition and characteristic crystalline structure, color, and hardness. Minerals are </span><em style="background-color: white;">chemical compounds</em><span style="background-color: white;">. </span><br />
<strong style="background-color: white;"><br />rock</strong><span style="background-color: white;">—Relatively hard, naturally formed mineral or petrified matter; stone; a naturally formed aggregate of mineral matter constituting a significant part of the earth's crust. </span><strong style="background-color: white;">Rocks consist of one or more minerals</strong><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><br />
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<strong style="background-color: white;">The mineral composition of a rock reflects the physical environment and geologic history where a rock formed.</strong><br />
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The Difference between Rocks and Minerals .

mineral —A naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic solid substance having a definite chemical composition and characteristic crystalli...

Fabulous Mexican Azurite

Minerals 9:30 PM

Fabulous Mexican Azurite

Azurite |‪#‎Geology Formula: Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 System:Monoclinic Colour:Azure blue, blue, light ... Lustre:Vitreous Hardness:3½ - 4 A secon...

Lena's Stone Forest in Russia

places to visit, tourism 1:05 PM

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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Lena's Pillars, also called Lena’s Stone Forest, is a natural rock formation about 60 km upriver from Yakutsk, in Russia. The amazing stone structures towers over 150 meters in height and extends along the river for about 80km.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">The pillars’ rocks formed in Cambrian sea basins some 500 million years ago and are made up of alternating layers of limestone, marlstone, dolomite, and slate. The region’s extreme climate and the humidity from the river create extreme temperature swings, from +40 °C in the summer to -60 °C in winter. This causes a cryogenic process, consisting of a freeze-thaw action that shatters the rock, widening the gullies between them. These isolated, towering pillars can reach over 100 meters in height.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Lena’s Pillars have fascinated travellers since the 17th century. But getting there is not an easy task. Your trip will start in Moscow city from where you will have to take a four day journey to the Siberian area of Yakutsk. First, you have to take a flight to Yakutsk, so long that if you flew opposite direction you could easily come to New York. </span></div>
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Lena Pillars contains outstanding evidences of the Earth and its living population development history. Numerous fossils of ancient organisms found here are unique preserved evidences of a very important stage in the history of the organic world and a biodiversity "boom", that occurred in lower Cambrian epoch. Also in Lena Pillars area the fossils of mammoth fauna representatives were found: mammoth (Mammulhus primigenius Blum), bison (Bison priscus Boj), fleecy rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiguibatis Blum), Lena horse (Eggus lenensis Russ), Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L)<br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span class="fbPhotosPhotoCaption" data-ft="{"tn":"*G","type":45}" id="fbPhotoPageCaption" tabindex="0"><span class="hasCaption"><span dir="ltr"><span class="text_exposed_show">  Although Lena Pillars Nature Park is famous for its rocky formations,  it is also home to numerous unique fossils of primitive fauna, such as  mammoth, bison, reindeer, and wooly rhinoceros. Ancient organisms like  mollusks, shells, sponges, and trilobites, dating back to the Cambrian  Explosion were also found beautifully preserved.</span></span></span></span></span><br />
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Lena's Stone Forest in Russia

Lena's Pillars, also called Lena’s Stone Forest, is a natural rock formation about 60 km upriver from Yakutsk, in Russia. The amazi...

Red tourmaline

Minerals 1:38 PM

Red tourmaline

Red tourmaline specimen found in Yen Bai Province - North Vietnam

Preachers Rock - Norway

tourism 12:52 PM

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<br />Preikestolen is a mountain formed like a huge pulpit towering over the Lysefjord in Rogaland, Fjord Norway. There is a crack between the plateau of Pulpit Rock and the mountain, and it is said that on the day seven sisters marry seven brothers from the Lysefjord area, the plateau will tear itself away from the mountain and fall into the fjord, creating a huge wave that will destroy all life in the surrounding area.<br />
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You've been warned. There is a well prepared track from Preikestolen Mountain Lodge to the top of the 604-metre-high mountain plateau. Expect to spend four-five hours hiking from the lodge to the top and back down, and allow an hour or two to spend on the plateau. <br />
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Preachers Rock - Norway

Preikestolen is a mountain formed like a huge pulpit towering over the Lysefjord in Rogaland, Fjord Norway. There is a crack between the...

Elephant Rock

tourism 4:42 PM

Elephant Rock

This rock is a fine example of an arch in the shape of an elephant. The rock is right next to the road, but as parking is limited on Va...

Amazing Folding Rocks at Agia Pavlos

folds, Structural Geology 9:03 PM

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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-en0wOy0P1CA/U5s8guIvceI/AAAAAAAABEM/pJF62oFPZgY/s1600/agiapavioslg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Amazing Folding Rocks at Agia Pavlos" border="0" height="436" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-en0wOy0P1CA/U5s8guIvceI/AAAAAAAABEM/pJF62oFPZgY/s1600/agiapavioslg.jpg" title="" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif;">These sedimentary limestone layers were once layered horizontal at the bottom of the sea. They've been folded and crushed with huge tectonic forces for thousands of years and now their sharp edges point vertically up to the sky.</span></div>
in  Agios Pavlos, Greece</div>

Amazing Folding Rocks at Agia Pavlos

These sedimentary limestone layers were once layered horizontal at the bottom of the sea. They've been folded and crushed with h...

West Salt Creek Landslide

Geology 10:58 PM

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<br />Image of the recent West Salt Creek Landslide that occurred on May 25th at 5:44 PM local time near Collbran, Colorado. Aerial view is to the south. The dimensions of the landslide: 2.7 miles long, 3000 feet wide (narrowing to 625 feet at the toe), and estimated to be 100 feet deep in areas. There was an earlier landslide event at 7:18 AM that caused disruption of an irrigation ditch. Three men went to investigate the ditch but unfortunately the main landslide event took their lives. A magnitude 2.8 earthquake was generated from the landslide that lasted 2 minutes and 20 seconds. Based on that seismograph wave train interval, it is estimated the landslide traveled with a velocity between 75 and 140 MPH. An estimated 30 million cubic feet of material was mobilized during the event. This landslide occurred in an area where older landslides have been mapped by both Colorado Geological Survey and USGS. Instruments and cameras have been installed to monitor future movements of the landslide. Acquisition of high-resolution imagery and digital elevation models are in progress. Photo by Jon White, Colorado Geological Survey.<br /><br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bgMYbwmspyQ/U5oF3gVyDHI/AAAAAAAABD8/kxomKAX1Kag/s1600/10361973_804896116195766_5404857285195234185_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="480" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bgMYbwmspyQ/U5oF3gVyDHI/AAAAAAAABD8/kxomKAX1Kag/s1600/10361973_804896116195766_5404857285195234185_n.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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West Salt Creek Landslide

Image of the recent West Salt Creek Landslide that occurred on May 25th at 5:44 PM local time near Collbran, Colorado. Aerial view i...

Opal

Minerals 4:42 PM

Opal

Opal Tectosilicates SiO2 Queensland, Australia Size: 10 cm

Hematite Aggregate

Minerals 11:25 AM

Hematite Aggregate

Hematite Aggregate Fe2O3 Botryoidal Habit A globular aggregate resembling a bunch of grapes with each round mass consisting of radiatin...

Natural Green Obsidian

Minerals 7:58 PM

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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The obsidian in the photo is displayed at Stephen Hui Geological Museum, Hong Kong.<br />
Credit: Stephen Hui Geological Museum</td></tr>
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<b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Green Obsidian – Volcanic glass</span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></b>
<b>Obsidian </b>is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock.<br />
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Obsidian is mineral-like, but not a true mineral because as a glass it is not crystalline; in addition, its composition is too variable to be classified as a mineral. It is sometimes classified as a mineraloid.<br />
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Most obsidians have a composition similar to rhyolite and granite. Granites and rhyolites can form from the same magma as obsidian and are often geographically associated with the obsidian. Rarely, volcanic glasses are found with a composition similar to basalt and gabbro. These glassy rocks are named "tachylyte."<br />
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Pure obsidian is usually dark in appearance, though the color varies depending on the presence of impurities. This can be caused by tiny microscopic inclusions of other minerals (feldspar, amphibole, biotite, quartz) called microlites (not the mineral). They can be observed under a microscope as thin rectangular, sometimes equant crystals that can sometimes form bands and give obsidian its characteristic colour.<br />
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In the case of dark green obsidian the colouration is caused varying amounts of Fe and Mg. The green coloration can also be achieved as some gas bubbles (vescicles) remained in the lava flow during crystallization.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-BqhExgwWwzc/WtYOgeTeRgI/AAAAAAAAPqo/tQCJIQTfa2UtAlh0OYCBIJJiH5JJe5M-QCLcBGAs/s1600/Green%2BObsidian%2Bfrom%2BDavis%2BCreek%2Bin%2BNorthern%2BCalifornia%252C%2BUSA.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Amazing Green Obsidian" border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="800" height="300" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-BqhExgwWwzc/WtYOgeTeRgI/AAAAAAAAPqo/tQCJIQTfa2UtAlh0OYCBIJJiH5JJe5M-QCLcBGAs/s400/Green%2BObsidian%2Bfrom%2BDavis%2BCreek%2Bin%2BNorthern%2BCalifornia%252C%2BUSA.jpg" title="" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Green Obsidian from Davis Creek in Northern California, USA</td></tr>
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Natural Green Obsidian

The obsidian in the photo is displayed at Stephen Hui Geological Museum, Hong Kong. Credit: Stephen Hui Geological Museum Green Obs...

Spectacular Neon Blue Lava Pours From Indonesia's Kawah Ijen Volcano At Night (PHOTOS)

Lava, places to visit, tourism, volcano 8:50 PM

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<span style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif;">You've heard of "red hot" and "white hot" to describe searing temperatures. But what about "blue hot"? </span></h4>
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That's the surreal hue of Indonesia's Kawah Ijen Volcano, which glows with an otherworldly "blue lava" at night. The mountain contains large amounts of pure sulfur, which emits an icy violet color as it burns, turning the rocky slopes into a hot (at least 239 degrees Fahrenheit), highly toxic environment.</div>
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Despite the dangers, photographer Olivier Grunewald captured the scene, along with a group of men who toil on the volcano at night, battling noxious gases to mine sulfur from the crater and carry it out by hand. Miners carry between 176 and 220 pounds of sulfur chunks per trip and sell the pieces for around 2.5 cents per pound. Yahoo reports they average two loads every 24 hours, thereby doubling their salaries amid sulfurous flames that can reach 16 feet high.</div>
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Spectacular Neon Blue Lava Pours From Indonesia's Kawah Ijen Volcano At Night (PHOTOS)

You've heard of "red hot" and "white hot" to describe searing temperatures. But what about "blue hot&qu...

Smoky Quartz

Minerals 7:48 PM

Smoky Quartz

Smoky Quartz Tectosilicates SiO2 North Carolina, USA & Ontario, Canada Size: 20 cm

Watch the Most incredible volcano footage ever.

volcano 8:41 PM

Watch the Most incredible volcano footage ever.

Slab of Tiger Iron

Minerals 2:06 PM

Slab of Tiger Iron

Tiger Iron, a combination of Golden Brown Tiger Eye, Hematite, and Red Jasper, exhibits the metaphysical properties of its components a...

Superbe Opal Cabochon

Minerals 12:55 PM

Superbe Opal Cabochon

Opal and Opal Cabochon Formula: SiO2 · nH2O Colour:Colorless, white, various Hardness:5½ - 6½ From: Queensland, Australia Size: 7cm ...

The Pink Lake - West Australia

places to visit, tourism 11:32 PM

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Lake Hillier is a pink-colored lake on Middle Island, the largest of the islands and islets that make up the Recherche Archipelago, Western Australia. From above the lake appears a solid bubble gum pink. It is such a significant distinguishing feature of the archipelago that air passengers often crane their necks to take a glimpse of it.<br /><br />The lake is about 600 meters long, and is surrounded by a rim of sand and a dense woodland of paperbark and eucalyptus trees. A narrow strip of sand dunes covered by vegetation separates it to the north from the Southern Ocean.</div>
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Unlike other pink lakes in the world like the one in Retba and the salt ponds at San Francisco Bay, the pink color of Lake Hillier has not been decisively proved, although it is speculated that the color could arise from a dye created by the organisms Dunaliella salina and Halobacteria. Another hypothesis is that the pink color is due to red halophilic bacteria in the salt crusts. That the color is not a trick of light can be proved by taking water from the lake in a container – the pink color can be found to be permanent.<br />
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The Pink Lake - West Australia

Lake Hillier is a pink-colored lake on Middle Island, the largest of the islands and islets that make up the Recherche Archipelago, Wes...

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