This Island Appeared Out of Nowhere, With Life Forms Never Seen Before

<p></p><span style="font-family: arial;">When a new island arose from the South Pacific in 2015, it created an unprecedented opportunity not just for geologists and volcanologists, but for biologists and ecologists, too.</span><br /><p></p><p>In 2015, a submarine volcano in the South Pacific erupted, forming the Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha'apai island, destined to a short, seven-year life. A research team led by the University of Colorado Boulder and Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES) jumped on the rare opportunity to study the early microbial colonizers of a newly formed landmass and to their surprise, the researchers discovered a unique microbial community that metabolizes sulfur and atmospheric gases, similar to organisms found in deep sea vents or hot springs.<br /><br />"These types of volcanic eruptions happen all over the world, but they don't usually produce islands. We had an incredibly unique opportunity," said Nick Dragone, CIRES PhD student and lead author of the study published this month in mBio. "No one had ever comprehensively studied the microorganisms on this type of island system at such an early stage before."<br /></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxEiVFRh57JDpotg6NE8OAEtuaNQjEv-PzmUnAz85ogel2Y-jd7Q_Gttrqx1dJ12nxq_ggyCCELcyYkK7SMedXI05cUTR8hEQkCfHJoiP1ytlLNrJG-WLoKV26UEWjSLFII2QfTL-EJX743Q5etsCKl0jjAy2N_lsEg9qedbziiAIRhx3Wn06H3VpF/s1100/This%20Island%20Appeared%20Out%20of%20Nowhere,%20With%20Life%20Forms%20Never%20Seen%20Before%20%20(1).jpeg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="This Island Appeared Out of Nowhere, With Life Forms Never Seen Before" border="0" data-original-height="734" data-original-width="1100" height="428" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjxEiVFRh57JDpotg6NE8OAEtuaNQjEv-PzmUnAz85ogel2Y-jd7Q_Gttrqx1dJ12nxq_ggyCCELcyYkK7SMedXI05cUTR8hEQkCfHJoiP1ytlLNrJG-WLoKV26UEWjSLFII2QfTL-EJX743Q5etsCKl0jjAy2N_lsEg9qedbziiAIRhx3Wn06H3VpF/w640-h428/This%20Island%20Appeared%20Out%20of%20Nowhere,%20With%20Life%20Forms%20Never%20Seen%20Before%20%20(1).jpeg" title="This Island Appeared Out of Nowhere, With Life Forms Never Seen Before" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">This Island Appeared Out of Nowhere, With Life Forms Never Seen Before. View from the summit of Hunga Tonga -Hunga Ha'apai island. (Photo: Damien Grouille)</td></tr></tbody></table><p>"Studying the microbes that first colonize islands provides a glimpse into the earliest stage of ecosystem development -- before even plants and animals arrive," said Noah Fierer, CIRES fellow, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at CU Boulder and corresponding author on the study.<br /></p><div style="margin: 0px auto; width: 100%;"> <script async="" crossorigin="anonymous" src="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js?client=ca-pub-1021498709184325"></script> <ins class="adsbygoogle" data-ad-client="ca-pub-1021498709184325" data-ad-format="fluid" data-ad-layout="in-article" data-ad-slot="3878143984" style="display: block; text-align: center;"></ins> <script> (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script> </div><br />A multi-institutional team of researchers on the ground collected soil samples from the island, then shipped them to CU Boulder's campus. Dragone and Fierer could then extract and sequence DNA samples from the samples.<br /><br />"We didn't see what we were expecting," said Dragone. "We thought we'd see organisms you find when a glacier retreats, or cyanobacteria, more typical early colonizer species -- but instead we found a unique group of bacteria that metabolize sulfur and atmospheric gases."<br /><br />And that wasn't the only unexpected twist in this work: On January 15, 2022, seven years after it formed, the volcano erupted again, obliterating the entire landmass in the largest volcanic explosion of the 21st century. The eruption completely wiped out the island and eliminated the option for the team to continue monitoring their site.<br /><br />"We were all expecting the island to stay," said Dragone. "In fact, the week before the island exploded we were starting to plan a return trip."<br /><div style="margin: 0px auto; width: 100%;"> <script async="" crossorigin="anonymous" src="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js?client=ca-pub-1021498709184325"></script> <ins class="adsbygoogle" data-ad-client="ca-pub-1021498709184325" data-ad-format="fluid" data-ad-layout="in-article" data-ad-slot="3878143984" style="display: block; text-align: center;"></ins> <script> (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script> </div><br />However, the same fickle nature of the Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha'apai (HTHH) that made it explode also explains why the team found such a unique set of microbes on the island. Hunga Tonga was volcanically formed, like Hawaii.<br /><br />"One of the reasons why we think we see these unique microbes is because of the properties associated with volcanic eruptions: lots of sulfur and hydrogen sulfide gas, which are likely fueling the unique taxa we found," Dragone said. "The microbes were most similar to those found in hydrothermal vents, hot springs like Yellowstone, and other volcanic systems. Our best guess is the microbes came from those types of sources."<br /><br />The expedition to HTHH required close collaboration with members of the government of the Kingdom of Tonga, who were willing to work with researchers to collect samples from land normally not visited by international guests. Coordination took years of work by collaborators at the Sea Education Association and NASA: a Tongan observer must approve and oversee any sample collection that takes place within the Kingdom.<br /><br />"This work brought in so many people from around the world, and we learned so much. We are of course disappointed that the island is gone, but now we have a lot of predictions about what happens when islands form," said Dragone. "So if something formed again, we would love to go there and collect more data. We would have a game plan of how to study it."<p></p><br /><i><u>The above story is based on Materials provided by <a href="https://cires.colorado.edu/news/rare-opportunity-study-short-lived-volcanic-island-reveals-sulfur-metabolizing-microbes" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Materials</a> provided by <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">University of Colorado at Boulder</a>. </u></i>

This Island Appeared Out of Nowhere, With Life Forms Never Seen Before

When a new island arose from the South Pacific in 2015, it created an unprecedented opportunity not just for geologists and volcanologists, ...

Read more »

Amber Colors: What Are the Different Colors of Amber?

<p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRSJW30bx2uuIZOHbrShuH5LEkYEqI9cIYfAYQxVN3hOmfLtuSuEObR_ibDswaAVblS2aGVMpzqiUMXqL3rvVp99DNKe31DPkpUp-pgk-JefZ-8Tp7ve0dELDlGyoFA-8xwZQ0kWkQqmqfMH5Brkz_SSaUuzZ6QB6FIlcPjPeKfSEt7_0rwOem630G/s1200/%20Different%20Colors%20of%20Amber.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Amber Colors: What Are the Different Colors of Amber?" border="0" data-original-height="700" data-original-width="1200" height="374" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRSJW30bx2uuIZOHbrShuH5LEkYEqI9cIYfAYQxVN3hOmfLtuSuEObR_ibDswaAVblS2aGVMpzqiUMXqL3rvVp99DNKe31DPkpUp-pgk-JefZ-8Tp7ve0dELDlGyoFA-8xwZQ0kWkQqmqfMH5Brkz_SSaUuzZ6QB6FIlcPjPeKfSEt7_0rwOem630G/w640-h374/%20Different%20Colors%20of%20Amber.jpg" title="Amber Colors: What Are the Different Colors of Amber?" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Amber Colors: What Are the Different Colors of Amber?</td></tr></tbody></table>    <br /><p></p><p>Amber is an amorphous, hardened material made from a mixture of organic compounds including carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. More than 40 other compounds, including succinic acid, potassium, sodium, iron and others occur in Amber mixtures, and have combined over time with the preserved resin of ancient pine trees. </p><p>Amber is a fossilized resin, not tree sap. Sap is the fluid that circulates through a plant's vascular system, while resin is the semi-solid amorphous organic substance secreted in pockets and canals through epithelial cells of the plant. <br /><br />The fossil resin becomes incorporated into sediments and soils, which over millions of years change into rock such as shale and sandstone.<br /><br />Therefore, amber is formed as a result of the fossilization of resin that that takes millions of years and involves a progressive oxidation and polymerization of the original organic compounds, oxygenated hydrocarbons.</p><h3 style="text-align: left;"> <u><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Colors of Amber: </span></u></h3><p> Types of Amber. One method of classifying amber is by color and degree of transparency. This criteria correlates to an optical classification of amber varieties. Colors of amber include yellow, orange, red, white, brown, green, bluish, and "black" (dark shades of other colors).<br /></p><div style="margin: 0px auto; width: 100%;"> <script async="" src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script> <ins class="adsbygoogle" data-ad-client="ca-pub-1021498709184325" data-ad-format="fluid" data-ad-layout="in-article" data-ad-slot="6157425841" style="display: block; text-align: center;"></ins> <script> (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script> </div><br /><p></p><p> Amber color variety consists of 6-7 main colors. These include butterscotch, lemon, cognac, honey, green, cherry (black) and white. The degree of transparency varies in amber from clear to cloudy. Clear amber is transparent and usually ranges from pale yellow to dark reddish yellow. Cloudy amber can be semi-transparent to opaque, a variety of colors and separated into terms such as fatty, bone (or osseous) or foamy (or frothy). </p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Yellow - orange (honey): </span></h4><p style="text-align: left;">For most people who know little about amber, yellow-orange color associates the most with this gemstone. This color amber is also very common and it accounts for two thirds (~70%) of all pieces found. Amber comes in a lighter color (yellow) when there are tiny bubbles inside this resin. These bubbles are able to defract the light and as a result amber is formed in lighter shade. In cases when there are fewer of these bubbles, amber comes in slightly darker shades that are similar to orange color. Yellow amber color was highly valued throughout the years and people considered it as a stone of sun.<br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Cognac-amber:</span></h4><p style="text-align: left;">Brown (cognac). This color of amber is quite similar to yellow-orange; however it has slightly darker tone. Cognac color of amber is commonly preferred by buyers, because it match well with silver and other jewelry materials. There are also a few different shades of this color distinguished - light and dark cognac.<br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Green amber: </span></h4><p style="text-align: left;">This particular color of amber was formed when resin from the trees fell near different plants. Chlorophyll, which is a pigment found in plants, reacted with resin and this is how some amber became green. Also some parts from the plants became trapped inside the resin, which influences the color as well. This particular color amber can vary from light to dark green, but in most cases it is quite similar to olive oil. Throughout the years, green amber was associated with good luck and it was even believed that it can bring immortality.<br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Blue-dominican-amber:</span></h4><p style="text-align: left;">Blue (dominican) amber. This color of amber is considered to be the rarest one. Normally blue amber tends to be very expensive and it is found in mines of dominican republic and in rare cases in mexico. Due to its mining location it is quite commonly referred to as dominican blue amber. However it is worthwhile to mention that this type of amber is not blue in the sense that you might think. Inside of blue amber there are hydrocarbons that create blue glow once they are in sun's ultraviolet light. Other light sources that have uv component can provide this effect in amber as well.<br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Red amber: </span></h4><p style="text-align: left;">This color of amber is quite commonly referred to as cherry. It is one of the rarest colors of amber and it accounts only for 0.5% of this gemstones resources. The shades of this color can vary from orange to even very dark red. In order for amber to be formed in a red color, it needed to stay in the air for a long period of time. Circumstances like heat of the sun, forest fires and natural oxidation process resulted in some amber obtaining particularly red color. In order to notice any changes in amber color due to these natural processes a lot of time is needed. Usually it can take even up to 100 years to see any difference in color without using artificial heating. Due to its rarity and potential mystical powers red amber was highly valued in japan. It was even featured in shosoin treasures and it was referred to as dragons blood.<br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Black amber: </span></h4><p style="text-align: left;">About 15 percent of all amber that is found today can be categorized as black. One could argue that black amber doesn't even exist since in many cases the color is a result of additional components that are trapped inside. These components can be remains of trees that amber was formed close to or other type of plant matter. There are even cases that these impurities take 85-90% of the whole amber piece. In these circumstances it can be more difficult to prepare it for jewelry making since it can be less solid. One quite unique aspect of this amber color is that it might show different color once it is held against the light. So instead of black, you might see red, brown or other colors. Throughout the years there have been different beliefs about black amber. It was thought that it can help to avoid attacks from enemies and protect the soul from evil spirits.<br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Butterscotch-milky-amber:</span></h4><p style="text-align: left;">Butterscotch. This color of amber can be dark yellow or even white (with various hues). It is very common for butterscotch amber to have natural embellishments and various patterns. During some times this color wasn't very common, which resulted in high price. Since only rich people were able to afford it, it was quite commonly referred to butterscotch amber as royal. Nowadays larger quantities of this color of amber are being found so the price is affordable for most buyers.<br /></p><h4 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">White amber: </span></h4><p style="text-align: left;">White color of amber is quite rare and highly valued by jewelry enthusiasts. It is not easy to find completely white color of this resin, because commonly there are various impurities visible. It is possible to find various patterns and other color inclusions. One quite unique aspect of white amber is that it is slightly lighter than other colors. Due to this reason, this color of amber can float even in fresh water. In ancient times it was even believed that particularly white amber has healing properties. Due to this white amber was one of the components for making medicine to treat hear conditions.<br /><br />All colors of amber contain the same amount of succinic accid. So the argument that some colors of amber can provide more benefits over the others is simply not true. So if you are wondering what shade & color of amber to choose, your choice should mostly rely on your color preferences.</p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><b>See also:</b></span><br /><a href="https://www.geologyin.com/2018/07/different-types-and-colours-of-moonstone.html" target="_blank">Different Types and Colours of Moonstone<br /></a><a href="https://www.geologyin.com/2017/05/the-different-beryl-varieties-with.html" target="_blank">The Different Beryl Varieties <br /></a><a href="https://www.geologyin.com/2016/06/types-of-opal-with-photos.html" target="_blank">Types of Opal With Photos </a><br /></p><p></p>

Amber Colors: What Are the Different Colors of Amber?

Amber Colors: What Are the Different Colors of Amber?     Amber is an amorphous, hardened material made from a mixture of organic compounds ...

Read more »

Earth's Spinning Inner Core Recently Paused Then Flipped Its Direction

<p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZuZZ6op2PsnMvsLge_nQYKcoTuEDBKtwRc6QvcBsk8mFJ1UFCHb8zY1NkFi-2860hSo5e1F1trlOy6wrUv35IS7EtRy2e6rrZEyi5rUeDC_8OkQutIeIC3s4hGCGcsNTDxOmml1n4wKTmEvXqwiAa-puuTaM6hyUarvrChH_TwL8jnREEBePQ21FV/s1200/Earth's%20Spinning%20Inner%20Core%20Recently%20Paused%20Then%20Flipped%20Its%20Direction%20%20(1).jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Earth's Spinning Inner Core Recently Paused Then Flipped Its Direction" border="0" data-original-height="675" data-original-width="1200" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZuZZ6op2PsnMvsLge_nQYKcoTuEDBKtwRc6QvcBsk8mFJ1UFCHb8zY1NkFi-2860hSo5e1F1trlOy6wrUv35IS7EtRy2e6rrZEyi5rUeDC_8OkQutIeIC3s4hGCGcsNTDxOmml1n4wKTmEvXqwiAa-puuTaM6hyUarvrChH_TwL8jnREEBePQ21FV/w640-h360/Earth's%20Spinning%20Inner%20Core%20Recently%20Paused%20Then%20Flipped%20Its%20Direction%20%20(1).jpeg" title="Earth's Spinning Inner Core Recently Paused Then Flipped Its Direction" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Earth's Spinning Inner Core Recently Paused Then Flipped Its Direction</td></tr></tbody></table> <br /></p><p>Earth's inner core, a hot iron ball the size of Pluto, has stopped spinning in the same direction as the rest of the planet and might even be rotating the other way, research suggested on Monday.<br /><br />Roughly 5,000 kilometers (3,100 miles) below the surface we live on, this "planet within the planet" can spin independently because it floats in the liquid metal outer core.<br /><br />Exactly how the inner core rotates has been a matter of debate between scientists—and the latest research is expected to prove controversial.<br /><br />What little is known about the inner core comes from measuring the tiny differences in seismic waves—created by earthquakes or sometimes nuclear explosions—as they pass through the middle of the Earth.<br /><br />Seeking to track the inner core's movements, new research published in the journal Nature Geoscience analyzed seismic waves from repeating earthquakes over the last six decades.<br /><br />The study's authors, Xiaodong Song and Yi Yang of China's Peking University, said they found that the inner core's rotation "came to near halt around 2009 and then turned in an opposite direction".<br /><br />"We believe the inner core rotates, relative to the Earth's surface, back and forth, like a swing," they told AFP.<br /><br />"One cycle of the swing is about seven decades", meaning it changes direction roughly every 35 years, they added.<br /><br />They said it previously changed direction in the early 1970s, and predicted the next about-face would be in the mid-2040s.<br /><br />The researchers said this rotation roughly lines up with changes in what is called the "length of day"—small variations in the exact time it takes Earth to rotate on its axis.<br /><br />Stuck in the middle<br />So far there is little to indicate that what the inner core does has much effect on surface dwellers.<br /><br />But the researchers said they believed there were physical links between all Earth's layers, from the inner core to the surface.<br /><br />"We hope our study can motivate some researchers to build and test models which treat the whole Earth as an integrated dynamic system," they said.<br /><br />Experts not involved in the study expressed caution about its findings, pointing to several other theories and warning that many mysteries remain about the center of the Earth.<br /><br />"This is a very careful study by excellent scientists putting in a lot of data," said John Vidale, a seismologist at the University of Southern California.<br /><br />"(But) none of the models explain all the data very well in my opinion," he added.<br /><br />Vidale published research last year suggesting that the inner core oscillates far more quickly, changing direction every six years or so. His work was based on seismic waves from two nuclear explosions in the late 1960s and early 1970s.<br /><br />That timeframe is around the point when Monday's research says the inner core last changed direction—which Vidale called "kind of a coincidence".<br /><br />Geophysicists 'divided'<br />Another theory—which Vidale said has some good evidence supporting it—is that the inner core only moved significantly between 2001 to 2013 and has stayed put since.<br /><br />Hrvoje Tkalcic, a geophysicist at the Australian National University, has published research suggesting that the inner core's cycle is every 20 to 30 years, rather than the 70 proposed in the latest study.<br /><br />"These mathematical models are most likely all incorrect because they explain the observed data but are not required by the data," Tkalcic said.<br /><br />"Therefore, the geophysical community will be divided about this finding and the topic will remain controversial."<br /><br />He compared seismologists to doctors "who study the internal organs of patients' bodies using imperfect or limited equipment".<br /><br />Lacking something like a CT scan, "our image of the inner Earth is still blurry", he said, predicting more surprises ahead.<br /><br />That could include more about a theory that the inner core might have yet another iron ball inside it—like a Russian doll.<br /><br />"Something's happening and I think we're gonna figure it out," Vidale said.<br /><br />"But it may take a decade."<br /> </p><p><i><u>The above story is based on <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-022-01112-z" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Materials</a> provided by <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Peking University, Beijing.  </a></u></i><br /></p>

Earth's Spinning Inner Core Recently Paused Then Flipped Its Direction

Earth's Spinning Inner Core Recently Paused Then Flipped Its Direction   Earth's inner core, a hot iron ball the size of Pluto, has ...

Read more »

Download The GSA Geologic Time Scale, Latest Version

<p style="text-align: left;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggJnnJuP3v5P0O8W_DUChNnWu_hcciniUeWTcpTrgBJLvX_TRBQWhj5bRyuNnas-NlLuIKbZLe80PKzn99rMCsfkxSaNrMy3qEoAZ1bN157TwHaLwzCx3SZwly534mbTfUI_FPnEXdUPEDc0quJh9XVM3Nwx-J73K1DD5-zARgVitcRGUCQjGXjAGH/s1580/GSA%20Geologic%20Time%20Scale,%20Latest%20Version%20(1).jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="GSA Geologic Time Scale, Latest Version" border="0" data-original-height="842" data-original-width="1580" height="342" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggJnnJuP3v5P0O8W_DUChNnWu_hcciniUeWTcpTrgBJLvX_TRBQWhj5bRyuNnas-NlLuIKbZLe80PKzn99rMCsfkxSaNrMy3qEoAZ1bN157TwHaLwzCx3SZwly534mbTfUI_FPnEXdUPEDc0quJh9XVM3Nwx-J73K1DD5-zARgVitcRGUCQjGXjAGH/w640-h342/GSA%20Geologic%20Time%20Scale,%20Latest%20Version%20(1).jpeg" title="GSA Geologic Time Scale, Latest Version" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">GSA Geologic Time Scale, Latest Version</td></tr></tbody></table> <br /></p><p style="text-align: left;">The geologic time scale is the “calendar” for events in earth history. It subdivides all time into named units of abstract time called—in descending order of duration—eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages.<br /><br />Geologic time, the extensive interval of time occupied by the geologic history of earth. Formal geologic time begins at the start of the archean eon (4.0 billion to 2.5 billion years ago) and continues to the present day. Modern geologic time scales additionally often include the hadean eon, which is an informal interval that extends from about 4.6 billion years ago (corresponding to earth’s initial formation) to 4.0 billion years ago. Geologic time is, in effect, that segment of earth history that is represented by and recorded in the planet’s rock strata.<b> <a href="https://www.geologyin.com/2014/12/geologic-time-scale-major-eons-eras.html" target="_blank">Read more here. </a></b><br /></p><p style="text-align: left;"><br /><b><span style="font-family: georgia;">Latest Chart version in <a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10.pdf" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">PDF</a> or <a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10.jpg" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">JPG</a>.</span></b></p><h4 style="text-align: left;">Translations</h4><ul style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 2em; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Spanish (v2022/02:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02Spanish.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02Spanish.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Portuguese (v2022/02:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02PTPortuguese.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02PTPortuguese.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Italian (v2022/02:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02Italian.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02Italian.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Japanese (v2022/10:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10Japanese.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10Japanese.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Korean (v2022/10:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10Korean.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10Korean.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">French (v2022/10:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10French.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10French.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Netherlands Dutch (v2022/10:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10NLDutch.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10NLDutch.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Belgium Dutch (v2022/10:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10BEDutch.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-10BEDutch.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Catalan (v2022/02:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02Catalan.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02Catalan.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">German (v2022/02:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02German.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02German.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">American Spanish (v2022/02:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02SpanishAmer.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02SpanishAmer.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Chinese (v2021/10:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-10Chinese.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-10Chinese.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Czech (v2021/10:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-10Czech.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-10Czech.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Slovak (v2021/10:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-10Slovak.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-10Slovak.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Finnish (v2021/05:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-05Finnish.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-05Finnish.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Hungarian (v2021/05:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-05Hungarian.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-05Hungarian.jpg" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Norwegian (v2021/05:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-05Norwegian.pdf" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2021-05Norwegian.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li><li style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;">Turkish (v2018/08:<span> </span><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2018-08Turkish.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">PDF</a><span> </span>or<span> </span><a href="https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2018-08Turkish.jpg" rel="nofollow" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">JPG</a>)</span></li></ul><p style="text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: georgia;"> </span></b><br class="Apple-interchange-newline" /><br /></p><p style="text-align: left;"> </p>

Download The GSA Geologic Time Scale, Latest Version

GSA Geologic Time Scale, Latest Version   The geologic time scale is the “calendar” for events in earth history. It subdivides all time into...

Read more »

Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains

<p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirUfPNQVIanTKZWpGlwrqIco9DVoajzZ88tdX8lckbJ1Fid7K8_lCXtiF9bxcznJY6frgurFrL9Jnp0-LmvaR4iScRfczHPCKRDpRCUOwp-6Z2VRk9brqltdPKMz0BBR6RI6ET5UnuIKNEDhZ5r8sVy_aOmCZ4Q1j99fa72kPSOGLZ2YIB8QjOooQp/s1004/salt-glaciers-iran-cover%20copy%20(1).jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" border="0" data-original-height="587" data-original-width="1004" height="374" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirUfPNQVIanTKZWpGlwrqIco9DVoajzZ88tdX8lckbJ1Fid7K8_lCXtiF9bxcznJY6frgurFrL9Jnp0-LmvaR4iScRfczHPCKRDpRCUOwp-6Z2VRk9brqltdPKMz0BBR6RI6ET5UnuIKNEDhZ5r8sVy_aOmCZ4Q1j99fa72kPSOGLZ2YIB8QjOooQp/w640-h374/salt-glaciers-iran-cover%20copy%20(1).jpg" title="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains <br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /> <p></p><p>In the southern part of the Zagros Mountains alone, <b>there are more than 130 salt domes</b> which affected the structure of Zagros Mountains as one of the most significant simple folded systems in the world. Aside from salt domes, there are salt caves including the longest salt cave in the world at over 6.4 km in the Namakdan Mountain, salt glaciers, salt valleys, karst sinkholes, and salt springs.<br /><br />A salt glacier (or <b>namakier</b>) is a rare flow of salt that is created when a rising diapir in a salt dome breaches the surface of the Earth. The name ‘salt glacier’ was given to this phenomenon due to the similarity of movement when compared with ice glaciers. The causes of these formations is primarily due to salt's unique properties and its surrounding geologic environment. A rising body of salt is referred to as a diapir; which rises to the surface and feeds the salt glacier. Salt structures are usually composed of halite, anhydrite, gypsum and clay minerals. <br /><br /></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXcsA7vMKkibJPDhWaDLyqCUHxRHpwW0YuCTgD6x2cYvyziAzL1Oj0OToB2Gy4iAAV-0vFsAheLY0IU_NHx-MVdRsa3ZRBwKxlWqBFYvERSJhRfXB3MINQZuHRSOqGU39GkcvzKAlG2q8tBO0Sgzy7667Lx5QtzvoQyeZm8qRB3lYJMfWFMHD9ImDB/s1386/Salt%20Domes%20And%20Salt%20Glaciers%20of%20Zagros%20Mountains%20.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" border="0" data-original-height="924" data-original-width="1386" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXcsA7vMKkibJPDhWaDLyqCUHxRHpwW0YuCTgD6x2cYvyziAzL1Oj0OToB2Gy4iAAV-0vFsAheLY0IU_NHx-MVdRsa3ZRBwKxlWqBFYvERSJhRfXB3MINQZuHRSOqGU39GkcvzKAlG2q8tBO0Sgzy7667Lx5QtzvoQyeZm8qRB3lYJMfWFMHD9ImDB/w400-h266/Salt%20Domes%20And%20Salt%20Glaciers%20of%20Zagros%20Mountains%20.jpg" title="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.philippe-crochet.com/galerie/desert/details/209/iran-fevrier-2016-domes-de-sel/237025/vo-16-0467-legende" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Photo: Philippe Crochet </a><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br />The salt domes are one of the main units of structural geomorphology of Iran. Those with highest density are formed in Zagros Folded zones, Persian Gulf region, and rarely in central Iran and Azerbaijan. The main area the domes are originating is Hormoz Formation related to Infra-Cambrian.<br /><div style="margin: 0px auto; width: 100%;"> <script async="" src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script> <ins class="adsbygoogle" data-ad-client="ca-pub-1021498709184325" data-ad-format="fluid" data-ad-layout="in-article" data-ad-slot="6157425841" style="display: block; text-align: center;"></ins> <script> (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script> </div><br />The sources of salt glaciers are salt deposits. Over time sediments, rock and debris cover the deposit causing layers to build up over the salt. Due to its crystalline structure, salt remains at the same density while the sediment above begins to compress and become denser. The density contrast is the mechanism in which salt begins to rise. Diapirs rise and pierce the surface allowing the salt to flow because of gravity. Piercing the overburden is crucial for salt glaciers to form, and can occur in three ways. <p></p><p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" border="0" data-original-height="1080" data-original-width="810" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAIdw8zbp2AbKtA4hOgnu2hZUfB3YTW9GmPCGDnSFych3DGb8E03ckiQ0QRtJBOl1n5v3cKqw360J3DbwSbXzcSC3WkgcNcjGUz31UoHLufhE6xkM3nMbJJZS4pJYH5rN5PznPpk13mxNoRizmj0nGcSHWfPXgFCFV0F_GkitXzMPn9hrYwH2CTK_t/w300-h400/Salt%20Domes%20And%20Salt%20Glaciers%20of%20Zagros%20Mountains%20dd.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" title="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" width="300" /></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Photo: saltytour.com<br /></td></tr></tbody></table><div style="text-align: center;"></div><p>Active diapirism develops as the rising salt itself pushes and forces the overburden upward and sideways. Passive diapirism occurs when the salt always remains near the surface and the sediment builds up around it rather than over it. Reactive diapirism is the result of regional extension caused by rifting.The overburden becomes weak and thin which allows the salt body to travel upwards.<br /><br />Salt glaciers are a frequent topic in salt tectonics, which is the study of salt causing deformation and its leading cause is differential loading (an unevenly distributed load). Differential loading can be caused by displacement, gravitational and thermal gradients. Other tectonics may cause salt deposit uplift. The strength of the overburden and drag of the salt deposit boundary are the two factors that will slow and prevent salt flow and it will only move if the salt forces exceed the resistant forces.<br /> </p><p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCzYOgNWNNb_svL1ObbHevT6gjDBK1KNGtB-PLAfc23b432AMtC5fucd_ealY_dvlyPEyQ6pyJz-FZ_5cEYH9Jz80gdHKpKxkk2VztjyL55d3ljZiJOk6VWTjJZgQ38QfhQnAOR-nylwhc4GttxYHHSanCQNbUkK_gsD37NwnPWOXLwj5O3sRMKsmp/s1080/Salt%20Domes%20And%20Salt%20Glaciers%20of%20Zagros%20Mountains%20w.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1080" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCzYOgNWNNb_svL1ObbHevT6gjDBK1KNGtB-PLAfc23b432AMtC5fucd_ealY_dvlyPEyQ6pyJz-FZ_5cEYH9Jz80gdHKpKxkk2VztjyL55d3ljZiJOk6VWTjJZgQ38QfhQnAOR-nylwhc4GttxYHHSanCQNbUkK_gsD37NwnPWOXLwj5O3sRMKsmp/w400-h266/Salt%20Domes%20And%20Salt%20Glaciers%20of%20Zagros%20Mountains%20w.jpg" title="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Photo: saltytour.com</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQMbYHbxarRlvh3ZYXYPqJ656sUVqrFxiGePljRnL9YvHddBGjgUYNNbxl1J82OpPEAdPGmbdkFja9cxrqVcwihfTTjmCCPGWi3pWGzVR_W6fj5tsxgHR_u5PaGlhgYbXElTrJERg0rtv8Qhgb6QtJrYsm1O7AE2Jk74vyoQ_Dxhv7URZ9KNuPIepK/s1000/Salt%20Domes%20And%20Salt%20Glaciers%20of%20Zagros%20Mountains%20d.jpeg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" border="0" data-original-height="525" data-original-width="1000" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQMbYHbxarRlvh3ZYXYPqJ656sUVqrFxiGePljRnL9YvHddBGjgUYNNbxl1J82OpPEAdPGmbdkFja9cxrqVcwihfTTjmCCPGWi3pWGzVR_W6fj5tsxgHR_u5PaGlhgYbXElTrJERg0rtv8Qhgb6QtJrYsm1O7AE2Jk74vyoQ_Dxhv7URZ9KNuPIepK/w400-h210/Salt%20Domes%20And%20Salt%20Glaciers%20of%20Zagros%20Mountains%20d.jpeg" title="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" width="400" /></a></div><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgl3sfYoLNZk6Tz5S9x0su-t8rc6QGFhAg2F3a1xZLFWELjZSCKNgrd7ZNLQ9skf6I8pMGVYWJ9rQFRZXbwoi54PMLP4ycD3Ej9uS3sNvr2A-ODHmwx3FpkLeNOL9RMwDdfOOcBCO1hWbk6CjonJVtW4o_HsOfaIyz1dXZgXs87wMbZDU3lQW9MzuMO/s1232/Salt%20Domes%20And%20Salt%20Glaciers%20of%20Zagros%20Mountains%20f.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" border="0" data-original-height="816" data-original-width="1232" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgl3sfYoLNZk6Tz5S9x0su-t8rc6QGFhAg2F3a1xZLFWELjZSCKNgrd7ZNLQ9skf6I8pMGVYWJ9rQFRZXbwoi54PMLP4ycD3Ej9uS3sNvr2A-ODHmwx3FpkLeNOL9RMwDdfOOcBCO1hWbk6CjonJVtW4o_HsOfaIyz1dXZgXs87wMbZDU3lQW9MzuMO/w400-h265/Salt%20Domes%20And%20Salt%20Glaciers%20of%20Zagros%20Mountains%20f.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Photo: Mas Mozaffary</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCbik6MSZ4dAS5Sx23FIpxLK0rkG8u2qLcg4RcbKGy7obiUEhVojYSQSuDhevg237BpZFF_ri5fPL6byi81-qFwYvmaaXNfFkpEy3Q1tcg_e6KPriNx4TNg_iPjVxuY506pg9PqED_YOHyz_Od2onMhp8zumTlc4K-WfCJnVPc7Jk3lMcXBPoEiCrV/s900/jashak-salt-dome-iran%20(1).jpeg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" border="0" data-original-height="812" data-original-width="900" height="361" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCbik6MSZ4dAS5Sx23FIpxLK0rkG8u2qLcg4RcbKGy7obiUEhVojYSQSuDhevg237BpZFF_ri5fPL6byi81-qFwYvmaaXNfFkpEy3Q1tcg_e6KPriNx4TNg_iPjVxuY506pg9PqED_YOHyz_Od2onMhp8zumTlc4K-WfCJnVPc7Jk3lMcXBPoEiCrV/w400-h361/jashak-salt-dome-iran%20(1).jpeg" title="Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains" width="400" /></a></div><b>See also: </b><br /><a href="https://www.geologyin.com/2022/11/richat-structure-geological-wonder-in.html" target="_blank">Richat Structure: Geological Wonder in the Sahara Desert </a><br /><a href="https://www.geologyin.com/2022/07/chinas-mysterious-egg-laying-mountain.html" target="_blank">China’s Mysterious Egg-Laying Mountain That Spews Out Stone Eggs</a><br /><p></p>

Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains

Salt Domes And Salt Glaciers of Zagros Mountains   In the southern part of the Zagros Mountains alone, there are more than 130 salt domes w...

Read more »

World's Largest Fossilised Amber Flower

<p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQaXsUmVLHne_HrEZQDYA7u8hQuGel0HMFu-5PjJSjGRvRrwHwJsW2-mjHIIjgASftfLRV7_TtqrEvyPnlQgQ91pfCo8a80trS_7Wz4FkVvC4ep-uIc16ELLJZ7O1AlZZMG99YxjmsupQglF2FEyKps1EHjce-yY4DJmamLNBg_ohurgyoCarb8DoG/s1200/World's%20Largest%20Fossilised%20Amber%20Flower!%20%20%20copy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="World's Largest Fossilised Amber Flower!" border="0" data-original-height="675" data-original-width="1200" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQaXsUmVLHne_HrEZQDYA7u8hQuGel0HMFu-5PjJSjGRvRrwHwJsW2-mjHIIjgASftfLRV7_TtqrEvyPnlQgQ91pfCo8a80trS_7Wz4FkVvC4ep-uIc16ELLJZ7O1AlZZMG99YxjmsupQglF2FEyKps1EHjce-yY4DJmamLNBg_ohurgyoCarb8DoG/w640-h360/World's%20Largest%20Fossilised%20Amber%20Flower!%20%20%20copy.jpg" title="World's Largest Fossilised Amber Flower!" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">World's Largest Fossilised Amber Flower! This bloom preserved in amber more than 33 million years old is a giant among flowers trapped in amber. Photo: Carola Radke, MfN (Museum für Naturkunde Berlin)<br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /></p><p>A flower trapped in Baltic amber is a stunner for its size and beauty. A pair of researchers with an affinity for amber and botany revisited the flower and fixed a science error that occurred 150 years ago.<br /></p><p>New images of the largest-known fossilised flower to be preserved in amber — which at 28 millimetres across is nearly three times the size of other preserved flowers — are published in the journal <i>Scientific Reports.</i> The preserved flower, encased in amber from the Baltic forests of northern Europe, dates from almost 40 million years ago and is thought to be from an ancient flowering evergreen plant originally called <i>Stewartia kowalewskii.</i></p><p>Amber exquisitely preserves the delicate organs of fossil flowers for millions of years. However, flower inclusions can be rare and usually do not exceed 1 cm (0.4 inches) in size. <i>Symplocos kowalewskii</i>, an exceptionally large flower from Baltic amber, measures 2.8 cm (1.1 inches) across — about three times as large as most flower inclusions.<i> </i><br /><br />Eva-Maria Sadowski and Christa-Charlotte Hofmann reanalysed the exceptionally large fossilised flower, which was originally described and named in 1872. The flower is dated to the Late Eocene, from between 38 million to 33.9 million years ago. </p><p>The authors extracted pollen from the sample and their analysis suggests that the flower is closely related to the Asian species of Symplocos. The authors propose a new name for the flower of <i>Symplocos kowalewskii.<br /></i><br />The authors propose that the rare size of <i>S. kowalewskii </i>is likely from a large resin outpouring which would have encased the flower. The properties of the resin would have helped to prevent organisms growing on the flower and causing damage, they add. </p><p><br /></p><p><u>The above story is based on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-24549-z" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Materials</a> provided by <a href="https://www.nature.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Nature Publishing Group.</a></u><br /></p>

World's Largest Fossilised Amber Flower

World's Largest Fossilised Amber Flower! This bloom preserved in amber more than 33 million years old is a giant among flowers trapped i...

Read more »

This Ancient Creature Is a Bizarre Hybrid of Dinosaur And Bird

<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlGsUpUtbmJ-gA6SrbJDD5CkM43oj4rZfdjdPNFOzf_11vQDOzhqaikGiKmeFrdM6IlsVMj4QaqYqVvy6olJPvsyTXxIKy-Vh9OcKdK7_8BSVqEmPw6_jcRdrvv7-zwLni4w7EZIfxhpMx-M7sTooGDVWZU6rOq8vf7uVF1_9hGomXoxv8jLyguErA/s1247/This%20Ancient%20Creature%20Is%20a%20Bizarre%20Hybrid%20of%20Dinosaur%20And%20Bird.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="This Ancient Creature Is a Bizarre Hybrid of Dinosaur And Bird" border="0" data-original-height="1090" data-original-width="1247" height="560" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlGsUpUtbmJ-gA6SrbJDD5CkM43oj4rZfdjdPNFOzf_11vQDOzhqaikGiKmeFrdM6IlsVMj4QaqYqVvy6olJPvsyTXxIKy-Vh9OcKdK7_8BSVqEmPw6_jcRdrvv7-zwLni4w7EZIfxhpMx-M7sTooGDVWZU6rOq8vf7uVF1_9hGomXoxv8jLyguErA/w640-h560/This%20Ancient%20Creature%20Is%20a%20Bizarre%20Hybrid%20of%20Dinosaur%20And%20Bird.jpeg" title="This Ancient Creature Is a Bizarre Hybrid of Dinosaur And Bird" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">This Ancient Creature Is a Bizarre Hybrid of Dinosaur And Bird. Life reconstruction of the 120-million-year-old bird <i>Cratonavis zhui</i>. (Image by ZHAO Chuang) <span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #444444; display: inline !important; float: none; font-family: OpenSans-Regular; font-size: 18px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: -webkit-center; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><br /></span></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p>Discovering a strange ancient creature that is a combination of a bird and a dinosaur<br /><br /></p><p>We can confidently say that birds are dinosaur descendants, though paleontologists are still puzzled as to how this incredible evolutionary event occurred.<br /></p><p>It is now widely accepted that birds are descended from dinosaurs. It is also understood that this transition encompasses some of the most dramatic transformations morphologically, functionally, and ecologically, thus eventually giving rise to the characteristic bird body plan. <br /><br />However, paleontologists still scratch their heads to understand how this fantastic evolutionary event occurred. <br /><br />Now, a new, complete 120-million-year-old fossil bird from China further complicates this issue by exhibiting a dinosaur-like skull articulated with a bird-like body. In addition, the fossil specimen, named <i>Cratonavis zhui,</i> preserves a surprisingly elongate scapula and first metatarsal, making it stand out from all other birds including fossil ones. <br /><br />The study, published in Nature <i>Ecology & Evolution, </i>was conducted by paleontologists from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. <br /><br />Cratonavis is positioned between the more reptile-like long-tailed Archaeopteryx and the Ornithothoraces (which had already evolved many traits of modern birds) in the avian evolutionary tree. <br /><br />To study the fossil skull, the scientists first used high-resolution computed tomography (CT)-scanning. They then digitally removed the bones from their rocky tomb and reconstructed the original shape and function of the skull. <br /><br />The result demonstrates that the <i>Cratonavis</i> skull is morphologically nearly identical to that of dinosaurs such as <i>Tyrannosaurus rex</i> rather than being bird-like. "The primitive cranial features speak to the fact that most Cretaceous birds such as <i>Cratonavis</i> could not move their upper bill independently with respect to the braincase and lower jaw, a functional innovation widely distributed among living birds that contributes to their enormous ecological diversity," said Dr. LI Zhiheng, a lead author of the study. <br /><br />As for the bizarre scapula and metatarsal in <i>Cratonavis</i>, Dr. WANG Min, a lead and corresponding author of this study, said, "The scapula is functionally vital to avian flight, and it conveys stability and flexibility. We trace changes of the scapula across the Theropod-Bird transition, and posit that the elongate scapula could augment the mechanical advantage of muscle for humerus retraction/rotation, which compensates for the overall underdeveloped flight apparatus in this early bird, and these differences represent morphological experimentation in volant behavior early in bird diversification." <br /><br />The new study shows that the first metatarsal was subjected to selection during the dinosaur-bird transition that favored a shorter bone. It then lost its evolutionary lability once it reached its optimal size, less than a quarter of the length of the second metatarsal. <br /><br />"However, increased evolutionary lability was present among Mesozoic birds and their dinosaur kins, which may have resulted from conflicting demands associated with its direct employment of the hallux in locomotion and feeding," said coauthor Dr. Thomas Stidham. For <i>Cratonavis</i>, such an elongate hallux likely stems from selection for raptorial behavior. <br /><br />The aberrant morphologies of the scapula and metatarsals preserved in <i>Cratonavis</i> highlight the breadth of skeletal plasticity in early birds, said coauthor Dr. ZHOU Zhonghe. Changes in these elements across the theropod tree show clade-specific evolutionary lability resulting from the interplay among development, natural selection, and ecological opportunity. <br /><br /><br /><i><u>The above story is based on <a href="https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research_news/life/202301/t20230103_325992.shtml" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Materials</a> provided by <a href="http://english.ivpp.cas.cn/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"> Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP). </a></u></i><br /></p>

This Ancient Creature Is a Bizarre Hybrid of Dinosaur And Bird

This Ancient Creature Is a Bizarre Hybrid of Dinosaur And Bird. Life reconstruction of the 120-million-year-old bird  Cratonavis zhui . (Ima...

Read more »

Rare, 'Rule-Breaking' Quasicrystal Found in Chunk of 'Fossilized' Lightning

<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoesESjCWE3eKjL2iWwjnoKRG4wKTOrvCNKVBHpapFqjWMyYHVnbFwVzFcaG65kn5UgOnDG25Yp3_t7-XSvAT2ewhwLOdPeTkaN2H-tVV8P9BpHpG-xw-fLvg7sPE70KHxkVPyfvWzTeknZDrPG4uV7ta37Ca7jy1Qyd_gBQSdAsVF3hYdpnRM0HBN/s1284/Rare,%20'Rule-Breaking'%20Quasicrystal%20Found%20in%20Chunk%20of%20'Fossilized'%20Lightning%20%20(1).jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Rare, 'Rule-Breaking' Quasicrystal Found in Chunk of 'Fossilized' Lightning" border="0" data-original-height="871" data-original-width="1284" height="434" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoesESjCWE3eKjL2iWwjnoKRG4wKTOrvCNKVBHpapFqjWMyYHVnbFwVzFcaG65kn5UgOnDG25Yp3_t7-XSvAT2ewhwLOdPeTkaN2H-tVV8P9BpHpG-xw-fLvg7sPE70KHxkVPyfvWzTeknZDrPG4uV7ta37Ca7jy1Qyd_gBQSdAsVF3hYdpnRM0HBN/w640-h434/Rare,%20'Rule-Breaking'%20Quasicrystal%20Found%20in%20Chunk%20of%20'Fossilized'%20Lightning%20%20(1).jpeg" title="Rare, 'Rule-Breaking' Quasicrystal Found in Chunk of 'Fossilized' Lightning" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rare, 'Rule-Breaking' Quasicrystal Found in Chunk of 'Fossilized' Lightning. The newfound quasicrystal was found in Nebraska, near the village of Hyannis. (Image credit: Luca Bindi)<br /></td></tr></tbody></table><p><span style="font-family: georgia;"><br />A type of crystal that breaks the rules of ordinary crystallography has been found in a tube of melted sand from Nebraska. </span><br /><br />A tube of "fossilized lightning" from Nebraska's Sandhills holds a rare type of quasicrystal that had previously only been found in meteorites and at atomic bomb test sites. <br /></p><p>A team of researchers from Università di Firenze, the University of South Florida, California Institute of Technology and Princeton University has found an incidence of a quasicrystal formed during an accidental electrical discharge.<br /><br />In their paper published in<i> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>, the group describes their study of a quasicrystal found in a sand dune in Nebraska.<br /><br />Quasicrystals, as their name suggests, are crystal-like substances. They possess characteristics not found in ordinary crystals, such as a non-repeating arrangement of atoms. To date, quasicrystals have been found embedded in meteorites and in the debris from nuclear blasts. In this new effort, the researchers found one embedded in a sand dune in Sand Hills, Nebraska.<br /><br />Study of the quasicrystal showed it had 12-fold, or dodecagonal, symmetry—something rarely seen in quasicrystals. Curious as to how it might have formed and how it ended up in the sand dune, the researchers did some investigating. They discovered that a power line had fallen on the dune, likely the result of a lightning strike. They suggest the electrical surge from either the power line or the lightning could have produced the quasicrystal.<br /><br />The researchers note that the quasicrystal was found inside of a tubular piece of fulgurite, which they suggest was also formed during the electrical surge due to fusing of melted sand and metal from the power line.<br /><br />In looking at the quasicrystal using an electron microscope, the researchers were able to make out its composition. In so doing, they found bits of silicon dioxide glass, which told them that temperatures inside the sand dune during the electrical discharge had to have reached at least 1,710 degrees Celsius. </p><p>They also found that the quasicrystal had been retrieved from an area of transition between melted aluminum alloy and silicate glass. Their work confirmed that the object they were studying was, indeed, a quasicrystal, and that it had a previously unseen composition.<br /><br />The researchers conclude that finding a quasicrystal in such a place suggests that others are likely out there, as well, having formed due to lightning strikes or downed power lines. They also suggest their work could lead to techiniques to create quasicrystals in the lab.<br /><br /></p><p><u>The above story is based on <a href="https://paulsteinhardt.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/element2012.pdf" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Materials</a> provided by <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2215484119" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.</a></u><br /> <br /></p>

Rare, 'Rule-Breaking' Quasicrystal Found in Chunk of 'Fossilized' Lightning

Rare, 'Rule-Breaking' Quasicrystal Found in Chunk of 'Fossilized' Lightning. The newfound quasicrystal was found in Nebraska...

Read more »

Giant Arthropods Dominated the Seas 470 Million Years Ago

<p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinrf7HNam9rdsLTnsSiDte_06P7HxBg809WVRXjS68zdPDSTZwy3x6f8Ig7XR8rn14n58KHeUQAwh4OHt9smQ3LEFNo16xy0qJSCtHVOK9bYNra9JbvETVDO3wcQ0n1lQOMZV9XFZLVKvA_wlJYYl925Kd20_DDeAqnh0BtvRHDkJsZ1SjX81nDf5C/s1280/Giant%20Arthropods%20Dominated%20the%20Seas%20470%20Million%20Years%20Ago.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Giant Arthropods Dominated the Seas 470 Million Years Ago" border="0" data-original-height="727" data-original-width="1280" height="364" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinrf7HNam9rdsLTnsSiDte_06P7HxBg809WVRXjS68zdPDSTZwy3x6f8Ig7XR8rn14n58KHeUQAwh4OHt9smQ3LEFNo16xy0qJSCtHVOK9bYNra9JbvETVDO3wcQ0n1lQOMZV9XFZLVKvA_wlJYYl925Kd20_DDeAqnh0BtvRHDkJsZ1SjX81nDf5C/w640-h364/Giant%20Arthropods%20Dominated%20the%20Seas%20470%20Million%20Years%20Ago.jpeg" title="Giant Arthropods Dominated the Seas 470 Million Years Ago" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Giant Arthropods Dominated the Seas 470 Million Years Ago.  Typical post-Cambrian animals from the Fezouata biota.  Credit: Emmanuel Martin.<br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table> <br /></p><p>Exquisitely preserved fossils in Morocco suggest that some of the earliest arthropods were nearly 7 feet (2 meters) long — gigantic in comparison with the shrimps, insects and spiders that are descendants of these early invertebrates, according to a new study. <br /></p><p>Discoveries at a major new fossil site in Morocco suggest giant arthropods – relatives of modern creatures including shrimps, insects and spiders – dominated the seas 470 million years ago.<br /><br />Early evidence from the site at Taichoute, once undersea but now a desert, records numerous large “free-swimming” arthropods.<br /><br />More research is needed to analyse these fragments, but based on previously described specimens, the giant arthropods could be up to 2m long.<br /><br />An international research team say the site and its fossil record are very different from other previously described and studied Fezouata Shale sites from 80km away.<br /><br />They say Taichoute (considered part of the wider “Fezouata Biota”) opens new avenues for paleontological and ecological research.<br /><br />“Everything is new about this locality – its sedimentology, paleontology, and even the preservation of fossils – further highlighting the importance of the Fezouata Biota in completing our understanding of past life on Earth,” said lead author Dr Farid Saleh, from the University of Lausanne and and Yunnan University.<br /><br />Dr Xiaoya Ma, from the University of Exeter and Yunnan University, added: “While the giant arthropods we discovered have not yet been fully identified, some may belong to previously described species of the Fezouata Biota, and some will certainly be new species.<br /><br />“Nevertheless, their large size and free-swimming lifestyle suggest they played a unique role in these ecosystems.”<br /><br />The Fezouata Shale was recently selected as one of the 100 most important geological sites worldwide because of its importance for understanding the evolution during the Early Ordovician period, about 470 million years ago.<br /><br />Fossils discovered in these rocks include mineralised elements (eg shells), but some also show exceptional preservation of soft parts such as internal organs, allowing scientists to investigate the anatomy of early animal life on Earth.<br /><br />Animals of the Fezouata Shale, in Morocco’s Zagora region, lived in a shallow sea that experienced repeated storm and wave activities, which buried the animal communities and preserved them in place as exceptional fossils.<br /><br />However, nektonic (or free-swimming) animals remain a relatively minor component overall in the Fezouata Biota. <br /><br />The new study reports the discovery of the Taichoute fossils, preserved in sediments that are a few million years younger than those from the Zagora area and are dominated by fragments of giant arthropods.<br /><br />“Carcasses were transported to a relatively deep marine environment by underwater landslides, which contrasts with previous discoveries of carcass preservation in shallower settings, which were buried in place by storm deposits,” said Dr Romain Vaucher, from the University of Lausanne.<br /><br />Professor Allison Daley, also from the University of Lausanne, added: “Animals such as brachiopods are found attached to some arthropod fragments, indicating that these large carapaces acted as nutrient stores for the seafloor dwelling community once they were dead and lying on the seafloor.”<br /><br />Dr Lukáš Laibl, from the Czech Academy of Sciences, who had the opportunity to participate in the initial fieldwork, said: “Taichoute is not only important due to the dominance of large nektonic arthropods.<br /><br />“Even when it comes to trilobites, new species so far unknown from the Fezouata Biota are found in Taichoute.”<br /><br /> </p><p><i><u><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: trebuchet;">The above story is based on <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/news/research/title_953405_en.html" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-radius: 0px !important; box-sizing: border-box; color: #004276; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;" target="_blank">Materials</a><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; display: inline !important; float: none; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span> </span>provided by<span> </span></span><a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; border-radius: 0px !important; box-sizing: border-box; color: #004276; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;" target="_blank"><strong style="border-radius: 0px !important; box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: bold;">University of Exeter</strong></a></span></span></u></i><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #333333; display: inline !important; float: none; font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><i><u><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: trebuchet;">.</span></span></u></i><span><i><u> </u></i><br /></span></span></p>

Giant Arthropods Dominated the Seas 470 Million Years Ago

Giant Arthropods Dominated the Seas 470 Million Years Ago.  Typical post-Cambrian animals from the Fezouata biota.  Credit: Emmanuel Martin....

Read more »

Radioactive Autunite Crystals

<p></p><br />Autunite is a product of the alteration of uraninite. It is the most common surface uranium mineral, abundant in the oxidation zones of uranium deposits ; it is also found more rarely in pegmatitic veins containing uranium and in some hydrothermal veins. <br /><br />Autunite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and often occurs as tabular square crystals, commonly in small crusts or in fan-like masses. Due to the moderate uranium content of 48.27% it is radioactive and also used as uranium ore. Autunite fluoresces bright green to lime green under UV light. The mineral is also called calco-uranite, but this name is rarely used and effectively outdated.<br /><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijTPEltV5oI33jbeUm0qFJbNRUPcHIGLprm1hY0TIRbb5ZvLAO1XnVbv06rmtOanH8HvMdxtg_NNdqUcMOJjv8v801-RD5u9Qv18yKoCxL1bquvbCaNRWGwUJBCgSyqB6SdbRZGw6lNwhfyEkcUsQuCBJ8QbgP1LFET-gvDitTlCN1zMRpSL_XU9X8/s1222/Autunite.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Autunite Radioactive Mineral" border="0" data-original-height="825" data-original-width="1222" height="432" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijTPEltV5oI33jbeUm0qFJbNRUPcHIGLprm1hY0TIRbb5ZvLAO1XnVbv06rmtOanH8HvMdxtg_NNdqUcMOJjv8v801-RD5u9Qv18yKoCxL1bquvbCaNRWGwUJBCgSyqB6SdbRZGw6lNwhfyEkcUsQuCBJ8QbgP1LFET-gvDitTlCN1zMRpSL_XU9X8/w640-h432/Autunite.jpg" title="Unique Autunite (Meta-Autunite) from Golconda pegmatite district, Brazil" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Autunite Radioactive Mineral. Unique Autunite (Meta-Autunite) from Golconda pegmatite district, Brazil. <br />Photo: Thomas Spann</td></tr></tbody></table><br />Autunite is a radioactive orthorhombic mineral which results from the hydrothermal alteration of uranium minerals. Used as a uranium ore, it was first discovered in France in 1852.<br /><br /> The crystals have the shape of thin plates with very nearly square outline (89° 17′ instead of 90°). An important character is the perfect micaceous cleavage parallel to the basal plane, on which plane the lustre is pearly. <br /><br />The colour is sulphur-yellow, and this enables the mineral to be distinguished at a glance from the emerald-green torbernite. Hardness 2-2½; specific gravity 3.05-3.19. Autunite is usually found with pitchblende and other uranium minerals, or with ores of silver, tin and iron; it sometimes coats joint-planes in gneiss and pegmatite.<p></p><p><b>Chemical Formula: </b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: times;"><b><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Ca(UO</span><sub style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">2</sub><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">)</span><sub style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">2</sub><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">(PO</span><sub style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">4</sub><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">)</span><sub style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">2</sub><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">·10–12H</span><sub style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">2</sub></b><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: #f8f9fa; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><b>O</b><br /></span></span></span><b>Crystal system: </b>Orthorhombic<br /><b>Color:</b> Lemon-yellow to sulfur-yellow, greenish yellow to pale green; may be dark green to greenish black<br /><b>Crystal habit: </b>Tabular crystals, foliated or scaly aggregates, and in crusts<b><br />Occurrence:</b> A secondary mineral derived from primary uranium-bearing minerals under. </p><p>It is a <b>radioactive</b> mineral that reacts very strongly to UV with a very characteristic green fluorescence. Autunite is an important uranium ore. It is also popular with collectors.</p><p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiKS2U5RJZOJVH_BZN1yMBMUG4ryqoy8kdmbi6OKVZJ7Fo0ul_NEEIaHN-yYSPFuBepiXSEGfTyKObp5CjP3pSVaHldSvRN-PNweSQnqAHGsgakAYwnme3L_oOkfrrPO7nTOro2fDqUtqB51OnGboZuKjZjBHTjJgPxey40cP0vzAbA2sOuOWcU_LU/s1024/Autunite%20Radioactive%20Mineral.jpeg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Autunite Radioactive Mineral" border="0" data-original-height="768" data-original-width="1024" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiKS2U5RJZOJVH_BZN1yMBMUG4ryqoy8kdmbi6OKVZJ7Fo0ul_NEEIaHN-yYSPFuBepiXSEGfTyKObp5CjP3pSVaHldSvRN-PNweSQnqAHGsgakAYwnme3L_oOkfrrPO7nTOro2fDqUtqB51OnGboZuKjZjBHTjJgPxey40cP0vzAbA2sOuOWcU_LU/w400-h300/Autunite%20Radioactive%20Mineral.jpeg" title="Autunite Radioactive Mineral" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Autunite Radioactive Mineral. Photo Copyright: Enrico Bonacina<br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><br /><p></p>

Radioactive Autunite Crystals

Autunite is a product of the alteration of uraninite. It is the most common surface uranium mineral, abundant in the oxidation zones of uran...

Read more »

The Rarest Mineral on Earth

<p></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="The Rarest Mineral on Earth" border="0" data-original-height="1047" data-original-width="1399" height="478" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixUcqwoqoJ1laMLQHjdKCKD0joLYEhAvvOhbGUOPOwqmT0VuuW8wgm5NYwFQ4ztqMdIePWpyYliODcPpOzXhZS1K1pnfEQvNKtIzAdVJq21f4pUrAowfcOk2VuMQDaxD90Jfauqzq4vVzLKUIdh5qaq38jNLyauAi8zsRdQ9J893RRz5A_wItEJw9F/w640-h478/The%20Rarest%20Mineral%20on%20Earth.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" title="The Rarest Mineral on Earth" width="640" /></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Rarest Mineral on Earth. Kyawthuite, found in Myanmar, is the rarest mineral in the world. <br />Photo: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County (NHM)<br /></td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><p></p><p><b>There is only one specimen of the rarest mineral on Earth, and it's from Myanmar.<br /><br />Formula:</b><span class="newformula"> Bi<sup class="newformsup">3+</sup>Sb<sup class="newformsup">5+</sup>O<sub class="newformsub">4</sub></span><b><br />System:</b> Monoclinic<b><br />Colour:</b> Reddish orange<b><br />Hardness:</b> 5½</p><div> <div> </div> <div> </div><span style="font-family: georgia;"> The rarest mineral on Earth is kyawthuite. Only one crystal, found in the Mogok region of Myanmar, is known to exist. Caltech's mineral database(opens in new tab) describes it as a small (1.61-karat) deep orange gemstone that the International Mineralogical Association(opens in new tab) officially recognized in 2015. </span></div><div><br /> <div> <span style="font-family: inherit;"><span>Well-known as a synthetic compound. The only approved Bi-Sb oxide mineral. May be a chemical analogue of clinobisvanite, BiVO₄, but the space groups are slightly different. Not analogous to bismutocolumbite or bismutotantalite.</span></span></div> </div><p> So it was that kyawthuite was born.<br /> <br />“This is the first in the world. It is not found in other countries,” U Kyaw Thu told The Myanmar Times last week.<br /> <br /> The precious stone was originally found by gems prospectors in Chaung Gyi village, Mogok township – Myanmar’s famed “Ruby Land” – part of Mandalay Region. Not realising its uniqueness, the finders set the raw stone out for sale at a market, where U Kyaw Thu saw it and discerned something special.<br /><br />“From studying in the field and buying stones from the Khanae market, [I could tell that] this stone was a little strange and I bought it. Then, when I reached Yangon, I examined it [and determined that] this was not like any other gem we’ve ever found,” U Kyaw Thu said.<br /> <br /> Although he purchased the stone in 2010, confirming its rarity was difficult in Myanmar, so he cooperated with experts from the United States and the International Mineralogical Association. In December 2015, the latter recognised it as the first ever discovered in the world, he said.<br /> <br /> U Kyaw Thu has largely kept quiet about the mineral named after him, pending confirmation from the International Mineralogical Association.<br /> <br /> The stone is currently being exhibited at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County in the United States. The museum’s bi-monthly magazine early this year boasted of having added “the world’s rarest gem to its collection”.<br /> <br /> The kyawthuite stone is reddish orange in colour and weighs in at 1.61 carat.<br /> </p><p><br /><u>The above story is based on <a href="http://minerals.caltech.edu/manuscripts/2017/Kyawthuite/index.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Materials</a> provided by <a href="http://ctminsoc.org.za/articles/kyawthuite-the-rarest-mineral-for-now%E2%80%A6" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">International Mineralogical Association</a>.</u><br /></p>

The Rarest Mineral on Earth

The Rarest Mineral on Earth. Kyawthuite, found in Myanmar, is the rarest mineral in the world. Photo: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles ...

Read more »

Strengite Mineral Information

<p>Strengite is a relatively rare iron phosphate mineral. Strengite is the end member of a series with Variscite, with Strengite being the iron-dominant member and Variscite being the aluminum-dominant member. <br /></p><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">Strengite is isostructrual with the iron arsenate di-hydrate Scorodite. The term ‘<b>isostructural</b>’ means the two mineral shares the same crystal form. Strengite also forms a chemical series with Varicite which is an aluminum phosphate di-hydrate. </div><p>Though similar in composition, Strengite and Variscite strongly differ in their color. While Variscite has greenish hues, Strengite is mostly in violet or reddish. The color caused by iron will dominate, and will cause Variscite rich in iron to have a violet or reddish color similar to Strengite.  <br /></p><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">Strengite forms as an alteration product of primary phosphate minerals such as triphylite. Strengite will occur if the oxidation conditions are high enough to oxidize the iron of triphylite from a ferrous (<span face="sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #202122; display: inline; float: none; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">+2</span>) state to the ferric (<span face="sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #202122; display: inline; float: none; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-decoration-thickness: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">+3</span>) state as is needed for strengite. The presence of strengite is therefore an indicator of the how much oxidation the rock has under gone.</div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoZ4jpE7aeCapCjEygbWqSY7acQaAYYja0gEk7kTHaeAcj0Dk0chSJWLGny99kvMuLEtmvflOkjTyLLqE3Fd4TSNJ2ALBb6LeeyQ8hVOn4TM_vs8VgzJftyuJN2olU9cP8jMrvSz6aQs9jwfNtHZW6515Xla4z77hnkMcC2OmP6wBQyKl8Ri_CqRbV/s1200/Strengite%20(1).jpeg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Strengite Mineral Information" border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="1200" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoZ4jpE7aeCapCjEygbWqSY7acQaAYYja0gEk7kTHaeAcj0Dk0chSJWLGny99kvMuLEtmvflOkjTyLLqE3Fd4TSNJ2ALBb6LeeyQ8hVOn4TM_vs8VgzJftyuJN2olU9cP8jMrvSz6aQs9jwfNtHZW6515Xla4z77hnkMcC2OmP6wBQyKl8Ri_CqRbV/w400-h266/Strengite%20(1).jpeg" title="Strengite Mineral Information" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Strengite Mineral Information <br />Photo Copyright: Dieter Strangfeld<br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br />Strengite forms a series with the more common mineral <b>variscite</b>, <span><span class="LrzXr kno-fv wHYlTd z8gr9e">AlPO₄·2(H₂O)</span></span>. A series is where different minerals will easily allow certain atoms to freely substitute for each other. In this case iron and aluminum can substitute for each other in variscite and strengite without any disturbance of the crystal structure. Usually the two minerals are fairly pure in nature, but some nearly intermediate specimens have been found.<br /><br />Strengite is a beautiful mineral and is hard to find on the mineral markets. The best samples are usually small and micromounts are seemingly more available than cabinet samples. Once a specimen is obtained, it will no doubt become a real treasure for the owner.<br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /></div><div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">The most common occurrence of strengite is as spherical aggregates of rheniform masses. However strengite does occur in distinct crystals on the mineral dufrenite in Rockbridge county, Virginia and in distinct crystal groups from Indian Mountain, Cherokee County, Alabama.<br />   <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Strengite Mineral Information" border="0" data-original-height="974" data-original-width="1100" height="283" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6NANSe5xXfQ39LgGdD90Yc1wxktt-2Y6UzKM9oLma6OWM7yiEIH2WKPfDtFKL6XfacgfGxC6aDwqvS3bIAGj1Dh4TO0lJUXDpQmAIOWDf15j_rhYRSBe38_miIdYMpOhMewtKA6o4Su4Vdsjjoks7b4I0DVlXUxrc6EAwTlTi2wC-TfFyFRsV37Az/w320-h283/Strengite%20Mineral%20Information.jpeg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" title="Strengite Mineral Information" width="320" /></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Strengite specimen from the Leveäniemi Mine, Svappavaara from North Sweden.<br />Photo: Joy Desor Mineralanalytik<br /></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div></div><p></p><p>The mineral is named after the German mineralogist Johann August Streng (1830–1897). </p><p><b>The specimen in the photo is From:</b> Hagendorf South Pegmatite, Hagendorf, Waidhaus, Neustadt an der Waldnaab District, Upper Palatinate, Bavaria, Germany</p><h4><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Physical Characteristics:</span></h4> <b>Formula: </b>FePO₄ · 2H₂O <br /> <b>Crystal System:</b> Orthorhombic<br /> <b>Colour: </b>Purple, violet, pink, ...<br /> <b>Hardness: </b>3½ - 4<br /><b>Cleavage </b>is good in one direction, poor in another.<br /><b>Fracture </b>is conchoidal.<br /><b>Associated Minerals:</b> are limonite, heterosite, rockbridgeite, variscite, phosphosiderite, strunzite, beraunite, triphylite and many other secondary phosphate minerals.<br /><b>Notable Occurrences: </b>include Rio Grande de Norte, Brazil; Bull Moose Mine, Custer, South Dakota, Indian Mountain, Alabama and San Diego Co., California, USA; Svappavaara, Sweden; Eleonore Mine, Germany and Mangualde, Portugal.<br /><b>Best Field Indicators</b> are color, habit, associations and luster.<br /><br />

Strengite Mineral Information

Strengite is a relatively rare iron phosphate mineral. Strengite is the end member of a series with Variscite, with Strengite being the iro...

Read more »