May 2017

Highest Aviation Alert Level Issued After Alaskan Volcano Erupts

Highest Aviation Alert Level Issued After Alaskan Volcano Erupts

A code red aviation alert was issued shortly after, but was later brought back down to orange Alaska volcano erupts for the second tim...

Gnat in Amber Raises Questions About India’s Tectonic History

amber, Earth History, Tectonic 3:47 PM

Gnat in Amber Raises Questions About India’s Tectonic History

Palaeognoriste orientale, a new species of Lygistorrhinidae in Indian amber, which has its closest relatives in European Baltic amber. ...

Why is Red Beryl So Rare?

gemstones, Geochemistry, Mineral, Mining 2:43 PM

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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-zmMWCJ90DW0/Wcvhh0pk1hI/AAAAAAAANhU/01lMtPeoXq0Iw0glnkdohiGQlOvsOnXLwCLcBGAs/s1600/hydrothermal%2Bbixbite%2B%2528Red%2BBeryl%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Why is Red Beryl So Rare" border="0" data-original-height="1296" data-original-width="1419" height="584" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-zmMWCJ90DW0/Wcvhh0pk1hI/AAAAAAAANhU/01lMtPeoXq0Iw0glnkdohiGQlOvsOnXLwCLcBGAs/s640/hydrothermal%2Bbixbite%2B%2528Red%2BBeryl%2529.jpg" title="" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cut hydrothermal bixbite (Red Beryl) <br />
Photo by Robert Weldon. </td></tr>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif;">Designated <b>the world's rarest coloured gemstone</b> in 2006 by the Jewellers association. </span></span> </h3>
It is estimated that one crystal of red beryl is found for every 150,000 gem-quality diamonds. Red beryl only occurs in three locations in the USA, with the only decent specimens coming from the now moribund <b>Ruby Violet mine in Utah. </b><br />
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The matrix grows in a particular kind of silica rich magma formed during either crustal melting (like in a mountain building event) or when magmas such as basalt gradually differentiate during cooling. As crystals of <a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2014/09/what-is-bowens-reaction-series.html" target="_blank">olivine, pyroxene and plagioclase form and settle in the magma chamber</a>, the remaining lava becomes enriched in silica and elements that do not fit into the structure of these minerals (known as incompatible elements and extensively used in geochemistry). <br />
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<a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/05/the-different-beryl-varieties-with.html" target="_blank">Beryl</a>, of course, the same mineral that gives us lovely blue aquamarines or yellow heliodor (when coloured by Iron), green emerald (chromium) and pink morganite (manganese). It usually forms in pegmatites, the last remains of granites to slowly crystallise, producing large crystals sometimes filled with rare elements distilled out of the planet by volcanism. Red beryl receives its red color from trace amounts of manganese.<br />
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Red beryl is a rare mineral because its formation requires a unique geochemical environment.  In this case, though the Beryl formed directly from a gaseous state, when a younger rhyolite intruded beneath the one in which it formed some few million years later, and the gasses flowed up as it cooled by interaction with groundwater in the older lava to precipitate the gems at temperatures of 300-650 Celsius. The gases flowed along the columnar joints (like those at Giant's Causeway in Ireland) forming beryl and topaz, the gemmy relics of tectonic forces some 22 million years ago.<br />
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It was originally called Bixbite (after the American mineralogist who discovered in 1904), but the name red beryl was adopted to avoid confusion with Bixbyite, also named after Maynard Bixby. It has also been mis-sold under the name red emerald (since emerald is by definition green), and can be visually confused with beryl's pink cousin pezzotaite. A laboratory certificate is strongly recommended when buying one. Like pezzotaite, the colour comes from impurities of manganese.<br />
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The Ruby Violet mine was first found by a Uranium prospector in 1958, and since then has had a long series of owners, all of whom have run into the problem that the mineralisation is so rare that the mine can't produce enough to be financially viable. Coring in the early noughties determined that large scale mining techniques would not be viable, and the claim has been inactive ever since, due to the extremely high price tag. Since the supply is so limited, red beryl deserves its moniker of the rarest coloured gem on Earth.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-e5Cmd9TKY3A/WagvrDtqmPI/AAAAAAAANQ0/f3kxSKDXyKAEzYl1o24xSER7Ug_lv5jmACLcBGAs/s1600/Red%2BBeryl%2Bterminated%2Bcrystal%2Bvar.%2BBixbite%2B%2BViolet%2BClaims%252C%2BWah%2BWah%2BMountains%252C%2BUtah.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Why is Red Beryl So Rare" border="0" data-original-height="649" data-original-width="564" height="640" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-e5Cmd9TKY3A/WagvrDtqmPI/AAAAAAAANQ0/f3kxSKDXyKAEzYl1o24xSER7Ug_lv5jmACLcBGAs/s640/Red%2BBeryl%2Bterminated%2Bcrystal%2Bvar.%2BBixbite%2B%2BViolet%2BClaims%252C%2BWah%2BWah%2BMountains%252C%2BUtah.jpg" title="" width="556" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Red Beryl terminated crystal var. Bixbite / Violet Claims, Wah Wah Mountains, Utah</td></tr>
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<b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Read also: </span></b><br />
<a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/05/what-is-sea-glass-and-where-can-i-find.html" target="_blank">What is Sea Glass, and Where Can I Find It?</a><br />
<a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/03/why-is-australian-opal-unique.html" target="_blank">Why is Australian opal Unique?</a><br />
<a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2016/03/rainbow-tree-opal.html" target="_blank">Discover the Breathtaking Opal Gemstone Called 'Rainbow Tree'</a><br />
<a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/07/what-causes-colour-of-gemstones.html" target="_blank">What Causes the Colour of Gemstones? </a><br />
<a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/03/how-do-opalised-fossils-form.html" target="_blank">How Do Opalised Fossils Form?</a></div>

Why is Red Beryl So Rare?

Cut hydrothermal bixbite (Red Beryl) Photo by Robert Weldon. Designated the world's rarest coloured gemstone in 2006 by the ...

How Did Dinosaurs Evolve Into Birds?

dinosaur, Earth History 3:18 PM

How Did Dinosaurs Evolve Into Birds?

Comparison between the air sacs of Majungasaurus and a bird (duck) Tohoku University researchers and their international collaborator...

China Successfully Mines Flammable Ice From the South Sea

earth, Environment, Mining 7:15 AM

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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Methane hydrate, or 'flammable ice', is a highly energy-intensive fuel source</td></tr>
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After nearly two decades of research and exploration, China has successfully mined so-called “flammable ice” in what authorities qualify as a major breakthrough that may lead to a global energy revolution.<br />
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China has for the first time extracted gas from an ice-like substance under the South China Sea considered key to future global energy supply. Chinese authorities have described the success as a major breakthrough.<br />
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Methane hydrates, also called "flammable ice", hold vast reserves of natural gas. Many countries including the US and Japan are working on how to tap those reserves, but mining and extracting are extremely difficult.<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">What is 'flammable ice'?</span></b><br />
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The catchy phrase describes a frozen mixture of water and gas. "It looks like ice crystals but if you zoom in to a molecular level, you see that the methane molecules are caged in by the water molecules," Associate Professor Praveen Linga from the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at the National University of Singapore said.<br />
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Officially known as methane clathrates or hydrates, they are formed at very low temperatures and under high pressure. They can be found in sediments under the ocean floor as well as underneath permafrost on land. Despite the low temperature, these hydrates are flammable. If you hold a lighter to them, the gas encapsulated in the ice will catch fire. Hence, they are also known as "fire ice" or "flammable ice".<br />
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By lowering the pressure or raising the temperature, the hydrates break down into water and methane - a lot of methane. One cubic metre of the compound releases about 160 cubic metres of gas, making it a highly energy-intensive fuel. The crux, though, is that extracting the gas is extremely difficult and energy consuming.<br />
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Methane hydrates were discovered in Russia's north in the 1960s, but research into how to extract gas from them from maritime sediment only began in the last 10 to 15 years. As a country lacking any natural energy resources, Japan has been a pioneer in the field. Other leading countries are India or South Korea - who also don't have their own oil reserves.<br />
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While the US and Canada are also active in the field, they have been focussing on hydrates under permafrost in the far north of Alaska and Canada.<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Why is it important?</span></b><br />
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Methane hydrates are thought to have the potential to be a revolutionary energy source that could be key to future energy needs - likely the world's last great source of carbon-based fuel. Vast deposits exist basically underneath all oceans around the the globe, especially on the edge of continental shelves. Countries are scrambling for a way to make the extraction safe and profitable.<br />
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China describes its latest results as a breakthrough and Mr Linga agrees. "Compared with the results we have seen from Japanese research, the Chinese scientists have managed to extract much more gas in their efforts." "So in that sense it is indeed a major step towards making gas extraction from methane hydrates viable."<br />
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It's thought that there is as much as 10 times the amount of gas in methane hydrates than in shale for instance. "And that's by conservative estimates," says Prof Linga. China discovered flammable ice in the South China Sea in 2007.<br />
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Nestled between between China, Vietnam and the Philippines, the South China Sea has in recent years been an increasingly contentious issue, with Beijing claiming sole sovereignty over it - and hence rights to all natural reserves hidden under its surface.<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">What next?</span></b><br />
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While indeed a breakthrough, China's success is still only one step on a long journey, Prof Linga explains. "It is the first time that production rates actually seem promising," he says. "But it's thought that only by 2025 at the earliest we might be able to look at realistic commercial options."<br />
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An average of 16,000 cubic meters of gas with high purity have been extracted per day in the Shenhu area of the South China Sea, according to Chinese media. But Mr Linga also cautions that any exploitation of the reserves must be done with the utmost care because of environmental concerns.<br />
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The potential threat is that methane can escape, which would have serious consequences for global warming. It is a gas that has a much higher potential to impact climate change than carbon dioxide. So the trick is to extract the gas without any of it slipping out.</div>

China Successfully Mines Flammable Ice From the South Sea

Methane hydrate, or 'flammable ice', is a highly energy-intensive fuel source After nearly two decades of research and expl...

The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos

gemstones, Mineralogy 3:11 PM

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<br /><h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Beryl: The Gem Mineral of Emerald, Aquamarine, Morganite</span></b></span></h3>
<b>Beryl </b>is a mineral composed of beryllium aluminium cyclosilicate with the chemical formula <span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Be</span><sub style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">3</sub><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Al</span><sub style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">2</sub><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">(SiO</span><sub style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">3</sub><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">)</span><sub style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11.2px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; orphans: 2; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;">6</sub>  Beryl is a single mineral with many varieties that are distinguished by their color.  Well-known varieties of beryl include emerald and aquamarine.<br />
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There are six well known types of beryl. Each type is known because of its distinctive color. The six different types of beryl include <b>aquamarine</b>, <b>bixbite</b>, <b>emerald</b>, <b>goshenite</b>, <b>heliodor</b>, and <b>morganite</b>. Of all of the varieties, emerald and aquamarine are the most sought after for their great beauty as gemstones (Beryl).<br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Aquamarine </span></b></span></h4>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-jdlTbzXCg0g/WSR54yTmrNI/AAAAAAAAMYo/vn1ki4kSkeY60P30IZjDkTcE9OnuhWlyACLcB/s1600/Excellent%2BAquamarine%2Bfrom%2BShigar%252C%2BPakistan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Aquamarine - The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" height="400" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-jdlTbzXCg0g/WSR54yTmrNI/AAAAAAAAMYo/vn1ki4kSkeY60P30IZjDkTcE9OnuhWlyACLcB/s400/Excellent%2BAquamarine%2Bfrom%2BShigar%252C%2BPakistan.jpg" title="" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Excellent Aquamarine from Shigar, Pakistan <br />
(specimen: Marcus Budil, photography: Malte Sickinger)</td></tr>
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Aquamarine is a light bluish green form of beryl. Its specific color comes from impurities of iron that lie within the beryl. The exact color of the aquamarine itself is dependent on where the impurities are located in the beryl. Aquamarine can be a very expensive gemstone. The most sought after color is pure blue.<br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">The pale blue color of aquamarine is attributed to <span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Fe</span><sup style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">2+</sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">. Fe</span><sup style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">3+</sup> ions produce golden-yellow color, and when both <span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Fe</span><sup style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">3+</sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and Fe</span><sup style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">2+</sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span>are present, the color is a darker blue as in <b>maxixe</b>. Decoloration of maxixe by light or heat thus may be due to the charge transfer between <span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Fe</span><sup style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">3+</sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and Fe</span><sup style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">2+</sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-bdUO0SEpzr0/WSR7gZ73lBI/AAAAAAAAMYs/17oSMLo1bzkMFNTvP1PMmER9ZFJs0q7ZwCLcB/s1600/maxixe%2BCRYSTAL.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="maxixe - The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" height="400" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-bdUO0SEpzr0/WSR7gZ73lBI/AAAAAAAAMYs/17oSMLo1bzkMFNTvP1PMmER9ZFJs0q7ZwCLcB/s400/maxixe%2BCRYSTAL.JPG" title="" width="391" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Natural Maxixe Blue Beryl </td></tr>
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The deep blue version of aquamarine is called <b>maxixe</b>. Maxixe is commonly found in the country of Madagascar. Its color fades to white when exposed to sunlight or is subjected to heat treatment, though the color returns with irradiation.<br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Bixbite (Red beryl)</span></b></span></h4>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-b0cY2xHclkg/WSR5O8l9OqI/AAAAAAAAMYk/v5t6cftpGF0zqIf16xXJ3Y1DIs8G954lQCLcB/s1600/Red%2BBeryl%2BCystal-Gemstone%252C%2Bfrom%2BWah%2BWah%2BMountains%2BBeaver.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt=" Bixbite (Red beryl) - The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" height="400" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-b0cY2xHclkg/WSR5O8l9OqI/AAAAAAAAMYk/v5t6cftpGF0zqIf16xXJ3Y1DIs8G954lQCLcB/s400/Red%2BBeryl%2BCystal-Gemstone%252C%2Bfrom%2BWah%2BWah%2BMountains%2BBeaver.jpg" title="" width="336" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Red Beryl Cystal-Gemstone, from Wah Wah Mountains Beaver</td></tr>
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Red beryl is an extremely rare variety of beryl that receives its red color from trace amounts of <b>manganese</b>. In the entire world, crystals suitable for cutting gems have been found in only one location, the Ruby-Violet claims in the Wah Wah Mountains of Beaver County, Utah. The Utah Geological Survey estimated that one crystal of red beryl is found for every 150,000 gem-quality diamonds. <br />
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Red beryl is very rare and has been reported only from a handful of locations: Wah Wah Mountains, Beaver County, Utah; Paramount Canyon and Round Mountain, Sierra County, New Mexico, although the latter locality does not often produce gem grade stones; and Juab County, Utah.<br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Emerald </span></b></span></span></h4>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-VdzR4mrr3gs/WSR3_ig-8iI/AAAAAAAAMYg/Ycr_eDA5A6UhVw9CraPBTP8XqLn41Pk8gCLcB/s1600/Amazing%2BEmerald%2Bfrom%2BPakistan..jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt=" Emerald - The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" height="400" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-VdzR4mrr3gs/WSR3_ig-8iI/AAAAAAAAMYg/Ycr_eDA5A6UhVw9CraPBTP8XqLn41Pk8gCLcB/s400/Amazing%2BEmerald%2Bfrom%2BPakistan..jpg" title="" width="347" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Amazing Emerald from Pakistan. </td></tr>
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Emerald is the green variety of Beryl, and its most precious and valuable variety. Its intense green color has given it status as an important gemstone throughout the centuries. The color of Emerald is green to emerald-green. The light green form of Beryl is not recognized as Emerald, but rather Green Beryl. The deep color of Emerald is caused by traces of the element chromium, but sometimes also vanadium.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ct2Fpm5052I/WSR3qQ17wGI/AAAAAAAAMYc/A0DKAfGCXlQttYR2iM1x9Hy2a96YobKfwCLcB/s1600/Emerald%2BTrapiche%2Bfrom%2BMuzo%2BMine%252C%2BColombia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Emerald Trapiche - The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" height="283" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ct2Fpm5052I/WSR3qQ17wGI/AAAAAAAAMYc/A0DKAfGCXlQttYR2iM1x9Hy2a96YobKfwCLcB/s400/Emerald%2BTrapiche%2Bfrom%2BMuzo%2BMine%252C%2BColombia.jpg" title="" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Emerald Trapiche from Muzo Mine, Colombia</td></tr>
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Emeralds can be transparent and gemmy, in which case they are extremely valuable, or they can be in opaque or semi-opaque forms which are much more common and not as valuable.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-k97sX8z4Id4/WSR2SRx-kWI/AAAAAAAAMYU/GzIHpOb52jIrMf1mjyhv82JT0lUVjgZSACLcB/s1600/Rare%2Btrapiche%2Bemerald%2Bfrom%2BMuzo%2BMine%252C%2BColombia%2B%25F0%259F%2592%259A%25F0%259F%2592%259A.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" height="395" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-k97sX8z4Id4/WSR2SRx-kWI/AAAAAAAAMYU/GzIHpOb52jIrMf1mjyhv82JT0lUVjgZSACLcB/s400/Rare%2Btrapiche%2Bemerald%2Bfrom%2BMuzo%2BMine%252C%2BColombia%2B%25F0%259F%2592%259A%25F0%259F%2592%259A.jpg" title="" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rare trapiche emerald from Muzo Mine, Colombia.<br />
Credit: Luciana Barbosa</td></tr>
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A rare type of emerald known as a <b>Trapiche </b>emerald is occasionally found in the mines of Colombia. A trapiche emerald exhibits a "star" pattern; it has raylike spokes of dark carbon impurities that give the emerald a six-pointed radial pattern. <br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Goshenite</span></b></span></h4>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZBP4qWjhVQ0/WSlmzX3lBVI/AAAAAAAAMcs/MCrL12XhVYMizol63EUYMTb8FLIkCDzowCLcB/s1600/Goshenite%2BBeryl%2BPakistan.Colorless%2Bberyl%2Bis%2Bcalled%2Bgoshenite.%2BThe%2Bname%2Boriginates%2Bfrom%2BGoshen%252C.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Goshenite - The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" data-original-height="640" data-original-width="512" height="400" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZBP4qWjhVQ0/WSlmzX3lBVI/AAAAAAAAMcs/MCrL12XhVYMizol63EUYMTb8FLIkCDzowCLcB/s400/Goshenite%2BBeryl%2BPakistan.Colorless%2Bberyl%2Bis%2Bcalled%2Bgoshenite.%2BThe%2Bname%2Boriginates%2Bfrom%2BGoshen%252C.jpg" title="" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Goshenite Beryl Pakistan.Colorless beryl is called goshenite.<br />
The name originates from Goshen,</td></tr>
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Colorless beryl is called <b>goshenite</b>. The name originates from Goshen, Massachusetts, where it was originally discovered. Since all these color varieties are caused by impurities and pure beryl is colorless, it might be tempting to assume that goshenite is the purest variety of beryl. However, there are several elements that can act as inhibitors to color in beryl and so this assumption may not always be true.<br />
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The gem value of goshenite is relatively low. However, <b>goshenite can be colored</b> yellow, green, pink, blue and in intermediate colors by irradiating it with high-energy particles. The resulting color depends on the content of Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Fe, and Co impurities.<br />
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<h4 style="text-align: left;">
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Golden Beryl and Heliodor</span></b></span></span></h4>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-SdWm8ndbHak/WSR87t7zaPI/AAAAAAAAMY0/FuQBwUKa6fUZkRzntTc9sviD6JpZAQT5gCLcB/s1600/Dramatic%2Btwin%2BGOLDEN%2BBeryl%2Bwith%2Brich%2Bcolor.%2BFrom%2BZelatoya%2BVada%2BMine%252C%2BTajikistan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Heliodor- The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" height="400" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-SdWm8ndbHak/WSR87t7zaPI/AAAAAAAAMY0/FuQBwUKa6fUZkRzntTc9sviD6JpZAQT5gCLcB/s400/Dramatic%2Btwin%2BGOLDEN%2BBeryl%2Bwith%2Brich%2Bcolor.%2BFrom%2BZelatoya%2BVada%2BMine%252C%2BTajikistan.jpg" title="" width="386" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dramatic twin GOLDEN Beryl with rich color. From Zelatoya Vada Mine, Tajikistan<br />
Credit: Matthew Potts </td></tr>
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<b>Golden beryl</b> can range in colors from pale yellow to a brilliant gold. The term <b>Heliodor </b>may also be used to describe light green, orange, and brown Beryl, and can be interchangeable with Golden Beryl.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/--WjepOtZ_qE/WSR8CMTjxqI/AAAAAAAAMYw/OUUsRRRHTq4wuXbGRHhBtuEV4s8N-twowCLcB/s1600/Gorgeous%2Bshining%2BHeliodor%2Bfrom%2BVolodarsk-Volynskii%252C%2BZhytomyr%2BOblast%25E2%2580%2599%2B%2528Zhitomir%2BOblast%25E2%2580%2599%2529%252C%2BUkraine%2BCredit%2B%25C2%25A9%2BDI%2BAnton%2BWatzl.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" height="400" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/--WjepOtZ_qE/WSR8CMTjxqI/AAAAAAAAMYw/OUUsRRRHTq4wuXbGRHhBtuEV4s8N-twowCLcB/s400/Gorgeous%2Bshining%2BHeliodor%2Bfrom%2BVolodarsk-Volynskii%252C%2BZhytomyr%2BOblast%25E2%2580%2599%2B%2528Zhitomir%2BOblast%25E2%2580%2599%2529%252C%2BUkraine%2BCredit%2B%25C2%25A9%2BDI%2BAnton%2BWatzl.jpg" title="" width="266" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Gorgeous shining Heliodor from Volodarsk-Volynskii,, Ukraine<br />
Credit: © DI Anton Watzl</td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: small;">The term "golden beryl" is sometimes synonymous with heliodor. but golden beryl refers to pure yellow or golden yellow shades, while heliodor refers to the <b>greenish-yellow shades. </b>The golden yellow color is attributed to <span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Fe</span><sup style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">3+ </sup> ions. Both golden beryl and heliodor are used as gems. </span><br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: blue; font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Morganite</span></b></span></h4>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1RHn65qDBcg/WSR9WxfVLiI/AAAAAAAAMY4/B0f6gPKdOE4abobcA2ISx8eIj-ClbFszACLcB/s1600/This%2Bis%2Bthe%2Blargest%2Bspecimen%2Bof%2BMorganite%2Bthat%2BI%2Bhad%2Bever%2Bseen.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Morganite- The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" height="225" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1RHn65qDBcg/WSR9WxfVLiI/AAAAAAAAMY4/B0f6gPKdOE4abobcA2ISx8eIj-ClbFszACLcB/s400/This%2Bis%2Bthe%2Blargest%2Bspecimen%2Bof%2BMorganite%2Bthat%2BI%2Bhad%2Bever%2Bseen.jpg" title="" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">This is large specimen of Morganite<br />
photo:Jewelry Television</td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: small;">Morganite, also known as "pink beryl", is a rare light pink to rose-colored gem-quality variety of beryl. Orange/yellow varieties of morganite can also be found, and color banding is common. It can be routinely heat treated to remove patches of yellow and is occasionally treated by irradiation to improve its color. The pink color of morganite is attributed to<b> <span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; display: inline; float: none; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Mn</span><sup style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 1; text-align: start; text-decoration-color: initial; text-decoration-style: initial; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">2+</sup> </b>ions. </span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-fkCdLVjFRJ4/WSSA5GS4V8I/AAAAAAAAMZE/U7BZ6JaOmjUIqOPCQ2KXoEKvIgU5TJ8wACLcB/s1600/Varieties%2Band%2BUses%2Bof%2BBeryl.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos" border="0" height="424" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-fkCdLVjFRJ4/WSSA5GS4V8I/AAAAAAAAMZE/U7BZ6JaOmjUIqOPCQ2KXoEKvIgU5TJ8wACLcB/s640/Varieties%2Band%2BUses%2Bof%2BBeryl.jpg" title="" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Varieties of Beryl: Emerald, Aquamarine, Morganite, Bixbite, and Heliodorl.  Jeff Scovil photo</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif;"><b>Read also:</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif;"><a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/02/how-to-identify-common-minerals.html" target="_blank">How to Identify Common Minerals?</a></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif;"><a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/01/types-of-mineral-inclusions-with-photos.html" target="_blank">Types of Mineral Inclusions with Photos </a></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif;"><a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2016/08/types-of-agate-with-photos.html" target="_blank">Types of agate with photos</a></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, "Times New Roman", serif;"><a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2016/05/interesting-facts-about-rhodochrosite.html" target="_blank">Interesting Facts about Rhodochrosite with Amazing Photos</a></span></div>
</div>

The Different Beryl Varieties with Photos

Beryl: The Gem Mineral of Emerald, Aquamarine, Morganite Beryl is a mineral composed of beryllium aluminium c...

The Birth and Death of a Tectonic Plate

earth, Geology, Tectonic 5:51 PM

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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cross-sectional view of Earth, showing mantle, convection currents, and plate motion</td></tr>
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<i><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Several hundred miles off the Pacific Northwest coast, a small tectonic plate called the Juan de Fuca is slowly sliding under the North American continent. This subduction has created a collision zone with the potential to generate huge earthquakes and accompanying tsunamis, which happen when faulted rock abruptly shoves the ocean out of its way.</span></i><br />
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In fact, this region represents the single greatest geophysical hazard to the continental United States; quakes centered here could register as hundreds of times more damaging than even a big temblor on the San Andreas Fault. Not surprisingly, scientists are interested in understanding as much as they can about the Juan de Fuca Plate.<br />
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This microplate is "born" just 300 miles off the coast, at a long range of underwater volcanoes that produce new crust from melt generated deep below. Part of the global mid-ocean ridge system that encircles the planet, these regions generate 70 percent of Earth's tectonic plates. However, because the chains of volcanoes lie more than a mile beneath the sea surface, scientists know surprisingly little about them.<br />
<br />
UC Santa Barbara geophysicist Zachary Eilon and his co-author Geoff Abers at Cornell University have conducted new research -- using a novel measurement technique -- that has revealed a strong signal of seismic attenuation or energy loss at the mid-ocean ridge where the Juan de Fuca Plate is created. The researchers' attenuation data imply that molten rock here is found even deeper within Earth than scientists had previously thought. This in turn helps scientists understand the processes by which Earth's tectonic plates are built, as well as the deep plumbing of volcanic systems. The results of the work appear in the journal Science Advances.<br />
<br />
"We've never had the ability to measure attenuation this way at a mid-ocean ridge before, and the magnitude of the signal tells us that it can't be explained by shallow structure," said Eilon, an assistant professor in UCSB's Department of Earth Science. "Whatever is down there causing all this seismic energy to be lost extends really deep, at least 200 kilometers beneath the surface. That's unexpected, because we think of the processes that give rise to this -- particularly the effect of melting beneath the surface -- as being shallow, confined to 60 km or less."<br />
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According to Eilon's calculations, the narrow strip underneath the mid-ocean ridge, where hot rock wells up to generate the Juan de Fuca Plate, has very high attenuation. In fact, its levels are as high as scientists have seen anywhere on the planet. His findings also suggest that the plate is cooling faster than expected, which affects the friction at the collision zone and the resulting size of any potential megaquake.<br />
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Seismic waves begin at an earthquake and radiate away from it. As they disperse, they lose energy. Some of that loss is simply due to spreading out, but another parameter also affects energy loss. Called the quality factor, it essentially describes how squishy Earth is, Eilon said. He used the analogy of a bell to explain how the quality factor works.<br />
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"If I were to give you a well-made bell and you were to strike it once, it would ring for a long time," he explained. "That's because very little of the energy is actually being lost with each oscillation as the bell rings. That's very low attenuation, very high quality. But if I give you a poorly made bell and you strike it once, the oscillations will die out very quickly. That's high attenuation, low quality."<br />
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Eilon looked at the way different frequencies of seismic waves attenuated at different rates. "We looked not only at how much energy is lost but also at the different amounts by which various frequencies are delayed," he explained. "This new, more robust way of measuring attenuation is a breakthrough that can be applied in other systems around the world.<br />
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"Attenuation is a very hard thing to measure, which is why a lot of people ignore it," Eilon added. "But it gives us a huge amount of new information about Earth's interior that we wouldn't have otherwise."<br />
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Next year, Eilon will be part of an international effort to instrument large unexplored swaths of the Pacific with ocean bottom seismometers. Once that data has been collected, he will apply the techniques he developed on the Juan de Fuca in the hope of learning more about what lies beneath the seafloor in the old oceans, where mysterious undulations in Earth's gravity field have been measured.<br />
<br />
"These new ocean bottom data, which are really coming out of technological advances in the instrumentation community, will give us new abilities to see through the ocean floor," Eilon said. "This is huge because 70 percent of Earth's surface is covered by water and we've largely been blind to it -- until now.<br />
<br />
"The Pacific Northwest project was an incredibly ambitious community experiment," he said. "Just imagine the sort of things we'll find out once we start to put these instruments in other places."<br />
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<br />
<br />
<u><i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The above story is based on <a href="http://www.news.ucsb.edu/2017/017991/birth-and-death-tectonic-plate" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Materials</a> provided by <a href="http://www.ucsb.edu/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">University of California - Santa Barbara</a>. Original written by Julie Cohen.</span></i></u></div>

The Birth and Death of a Tectonic Plate

Cross-sectional view of Earth, showing mantle, convection currents, and plate motion Several hundred miles off the Pacific Northwest c...

How Do You Grow Such Beautiful Copper and Silver Crystals?

Crystal, News 4:20 PM

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<br />
First we start with an electrolytic refining cell. This kind of cell is generally used to refine silver, copper, and gold. But during the refining process silver and copper are capable of forming crystals. Gold will not crystallize it only plates out, which works great for refining but isn’t nearly as beautiful.<br />
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Next we create our solution. When growing silver crystals we take and dissolve pure silver granules into nitric acid and purified water using a boiling process. The process is complete when the granules are dissolved and the PH has risen from a 0 to a PH of 4. This solution is called an electrolyte solution and contains approximately 20 oz of silver per gallon.<br />
<br />
Now we take our electrolyte solution and pour it into the cell. A cell should be anywhere from two to four gallons. Then we take and submerge our plates. One plate is at least 92% pure silver and the other is stainless steel. Once the plates are submerged and secured we hook up the electricity. We attach the positive lead to the silver plate (anode) and the negative lead to the steel plate (cathode). Then using a DC trickle charge we run approximately one and a half volts through the cell.<br />
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As the electricity runs through the cell the plate of pure silver starts to slowly dissolve. But as fast as the silver is dissolving into the solution the silver is being deposited onto the steel plate in the form of crystals. This is called an ion exchange.<br />
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As the silver plate is dissolving it gives off a black sludge so a fine cloth bag is placed around the plate to collect the sludge for easier cleaning. This sludge contains all of the impurities from the silver plate. In this process an impurity is anything that isn’t silver such as gold, tin, zinc, and lead, but not copper. Copper is dissolved into the solution. So when the solution turns a dark blue color it is time to discard it, but not before the silver is removed to be used again.<br />
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It takes about 24 hours for average crystals to form and three to four days for the bigger heavier ones. Once the crystals reach the desired size the plates are removed from the solution and the crystals are scraped off and cleaned with distilled water and allowed to air dry.<br />
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There are several factors that influence how a crystal will form. The amount of electricity running through the cell, the amount of silver in the solution, even the temperature (the crystals prefer the warmer temperatures).<br />
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The process for creating copper crystals is the same as with the silver, we simply switch out the silver and steel plates for copper ones and the silver granules with copper wire. And to create the copper crystals on the pennies we simply attach some copper pennies to one of the plates and watch them grow.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_Y_MR8-47fA/WSgougFRfyI/AAAAAAAAMa4/P95-4qG0mY470_C3TWCJqytEohA-___agCLcB/s1600/How%2Bdo%2Byou%2Bgrow%2Bsuch%2Bbeautiful%2Bcopper%2Band%2Bsilver%2Bcrystals%2B2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="How Do You Grow Such Beautiful Copper and Silver Crystals?" border="0" data-original-height="768" data-original-width="1024" height="480" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_Y_MR8-47fA/WSgougFRfyI/AAAAAAAAMa4/P95-4qG0mY470_C3TWCJqytEohA-___agCLcB/s640/How%2Bdo%2Byou%2Bgrow%2Bsuch%2Bbeautiful%2Bcopper%2Band%2Bsilver%2Bcrystals%2B2.jpg" title="" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Copper Crystals</td></tr>
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<br />
<i><u><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The above post is reprinted from <a href="http://www.wholesalegoldvials.com/about/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Treehouse Silver</a></span></u></i></div>

How Do You Grow Such Beautiful Copper and Silver Crystals?

First we start with an electrolytic refining cell. This kind of cell is generally used to refine silver, copper, and gold. But during...

Researchers Discover Hottest Lavas Erupted in 2.5 Billion Years

Earth History, Lava, volcano 9:42 PM

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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">X-ray chemical maps of olivines of the Tortugal Suite that record extremely hot crystallization temperatures. Image taken from research paper spearheaded by Esteban Gazel, an assistant professor in the Department of Geosciences, and doctoral student Jarek Trela. Credit: Virginia Tech</td></tr>
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<br />
An international team of researchers led by geoscientists with the Virginia Tech College of Science recently discovered that deep portions of Earth's mantle might be as hot as it was more than 2.5 billion years ago.<br />
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The study, led by Esteban Gazel, an assistant professor with Virginia Tech's Department of Geosciences, and his doctoral student Jarek Trela of Deer Park, Illinois, is published in the latest issue of Nature Geoscience. The study brings new, unprecedented evidence on the thermal evolution of the deep Earth during the past 2.5 billion years, Gazel said.<br />
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The Archean Eon—covering from 2.5 to 4 billion years ago—is one of the most enigmatic times in the evolution of our planet, Gazel said. During this time period, the temperature of Earth's mantle—the silicate region between the crust and the outer core—was hotter than it is today, owing to a higher amount of radioactive heat produced from the decay of elements such as potassium, thorium, and uranium. Because Earth was hotter during this period, this interval of geologic time is marked by the widespread of occurrence of a unique rock known as komatiite.<br />
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"Komatiites are basically superhot versions of Hawaiian style lava flows," Gazel said. "You can imagine a Hawaiian lava flow, only komatiites were so hot that they glowed white instead of red, and they flowed on a planetary surface with very different atmospheric conditions, more similar to Venus than the planet we live on today."<br />
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Earth essentially stopped producing abundant hot komatiites after the Archean era because the mantle has cooled during the past 4.5 billion years due to convective cooling and a decrease in radioactive heat production, Gazel said.<br />
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However, Gazel and a team made what they call an astonishing discovery while studying the chemistry of ancient Galapagos-related lava flows, preserved today in Central America: a suite of lavas that shows conditions of melting and crystallization similar to the mysterious Archean komatiites.<br />
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Gazel and collaborators studied a set of rocks from the 90 million-year-old Tortugal Suite in Costa Rica and found that they had magnesium concentrations as high as Archean komatiites, as well as textural evidence for extremely hot lava flow temperatures.<br />
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"Experimental studies tell us that that the magnesium concentration of basalts and komatiites is related to the initial temperature of the melt," Gazel said. "They higher the temperature, the higher the magnesium content of a basalt."<br />
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The team also studied the composition olivine, the first mineral that crystallized from these lavas. Olivine—a light green mineral that Gazel has obsessively explored many volcanoes and magmatic regions to search for—is an extremely useful tool to study a number of conditions related to origin of a lava flow because it is the first mineral phase that crystallizes when a mantle melt cools. Olivines also carry inclusions of glass—that once was melt—and other smaller minerals that are helpful to decipher the secrets of the deep Earth.<br />
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"We used the composition of olivine as another thermometer to corroborate how hot these lavas were when they began to cool," Gazel said. "You can determine the temperature that basaltic lava began crystallizing by analyzing the composition of olivine and inclusions of another mineral called spinel. At higher temperatures, olivine will incorporate more aluminum into its structure and spinel will incorporate more chromium. If you know how much of these elements are present in each mineral, then you know the temperature at which they crystallized."<br />
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The team found that Tortugal olivines crystallized at temperature nearing 2,900 degrees Fahrenheit (1,600 degrees Celsius)—as high as temperatures recorded by olivines from komatiites—making this a new record on lava temperatures in the past 2.5 billion years.<br />
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Gazel and collaborators suggest in their study that Earth may still be capable of producing komatiite-like melts. Their results suggest that Tortugal lavas most likely originated from the hot core of the Galapagos mantle plume that started producing melts nearly 90 million years ago and has remained active ever since.<br />
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A mantle plume is a deep-earth structure that likely originates at the core-mantle boundary of the planet. When it nears the surface of the planet it begins to melt, forming features known as hotspots such as those found in Hawaii or Galapagos. Geologists can then study these hotspot lava flows and use their geochemical information as a window into the deep Earth.<br />
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"What is really fascinating about this study is that we show that the planet is still capable of producing lavas as hot as during Archean time period," Gazel said. "Based on our results from Tortugal lavas, we think that mantle plumes are 'tapping' a deep, hot region of the mantle that hasn't cooled very much since the Archean. We think that this region is probably being sustained by heat from the crystallizing core of the planet."<br />
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"This is a really interesting discovery and we are going to keep investigating Tortugal," said Trela, a doctoral student and the first author of the paper. "Although the Tortugal Suite was first discovered and documented more than 20 years ago, it wasn't until now that we have the technology and experimental support to better understand the global implications of this location."<br />
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Trela added, "Our new data suggest that this suite of rocks offers tremendous opportunity to answer key questions regarding the accretion of the Earth, its thermal evolution, and the geochemical messages that mantle plumes bring to the surface of the planet."<br />
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<br />
<u><i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The above story is based on  <a href="http://vtnews.vt.edu/articles/2017/05/science-hottestlavas.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">materials</a> provided by <a href="http://www.vt.edu/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Virginia Tech</a>.</span></i></u></div>

Researchers Discover Hottest Lavas Erupted in 2.5 Billion Years

X-ray chemical maps of olivines of the Tortugal Suite that record extremely hot crystallization temperatures. Image taken from research p...

The Rarest Natural Element on Earth

earth, Geochemistry 11:29 AM

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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">This mineral, Autunite, appears in my Photographic Periodic Table Poster representing astatine, because this highly unstable element can't reasonably be photographed. </td></tr>
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<h3>
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">It's so rare, there's just 30 grams TOTAL in Earth's crust.</span></b></span></h3>
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Named after the Greek word for unstable (astatos), <b>Astatine </b>is a naturally occurring semi-metal that results from the decay of uranium and thorium. In its most stable form - astatine-210 - it's got a half-life of just 8.1 hours, which means even if you did happen to stumble on some of it, half of it would be gone by the end of a work day. Depending on how it decays, it'll either turn into the isotopes bismuth-206 or polonium-210.<br />
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This instability, combined with its actual scarceness, means that at any one time, there's less than 30 grams of it in the Earth's crust. If scientists need to use it, they have to produce it from scratch, that said, only 0.05 micrograms (0.00000005 grams) of astatine have been produced to date. No one's ever seen it in its elemental state, because if you had enough of it to see it with the naked eye, it would have already been vaporised by the heat of its own radioactivity.That said, scientists assume it would take on a dark or metallic appearance if you could see it.<br />
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<br />
According to the guys at From Quarks to Quasars, who made the awesome infographic above, astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element that isn't a transuranic element. These strange elements are all the ones on the periodic table that have an atomic number greater than that of uranium - 92 - and they're super-unstable, decaying into a bunch of other elements.<br />
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So how can astatine be the rarest naturally occurring element if transuranic elements are technically even rarer? "Because the transuranic elements have half-lives much shorter than the age of our planet," says From Quarks to Quasars. "As a result, if any of these elements ever were present on Earth, they have long since gone, decaying into other things."<br />
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You know you need to get step away from the computer and get some sun when all you can think about is how poignant that sounds.<br />
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<br />
<u><i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The above story is based on materials provided by  <a href="http://www.fromquarkstoquasars.com/the-rarest-known-element-infographic/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Quarks To Quasars.</a> </span></i></u></div>

The Rarest Natural Element on Earth

This mineral, Autunite, appears in my Photographic Periodic Table Poster representing astatine, because this highly unstable element ca...

What Is the Difference Between Moonstone and Opalite?

gemstones, Mineralogy 3:05 PM

What Is the Difference Between Moonstone and Opalite?

Moonstone left and Opalite on the right. Photo: InVogueJewelry It's really pretty easy to tell if something is Opalite which is ...

Where to Find Gold in the United States

Gold, Mining, places to visit, USA 10:03 PM

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<b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">10 Places Where You Can Still Pan for Gold in Your Family Vacation</span></span></b></h3>
Naturally occurring gold can be found in almost all fifty states. This gold may be still embedded in rock, known as "lode gold", or it may have been deposited in a placer (a natural concentration of gold particles in sand or gravel bars) after weathering from the host rock -- or it may be found in plant tissues, or seawater, or even present in minute quantities in beach sand. (Gold is found in copious amounts on Alaska beaches and even in Oregon.) If your interest in gold is more than academic, the trick is to find locations with enough gold to make it worthwhile to try to recover some of it.<br />
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Location is arguably the single most important factor when it comes to determining the success of your gold panning experience. You can have the most expensive equipment and tools in the world, but unless there's actual gold in the water and land, you simply aren't going to come out with any. Thankfully, the U.S. is filled with hotspots from the east to west coast that are perfect for hopeful panners. As long as you're willing to make the trip, you'll find these locations are well worth the extra time it takes to reach them. Here we'll take a look at some of the top gold panning places in the U.S. and reveal some of the unique features that make them so popular.<br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Crow Creek Gold Mine, Anchorage, Alaska</span></b></span></h3>
<a href="http://www.crowcreekmine.com/Crow_Creek_Mine/History_of_a_Gold_Mine.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Crow Creek Gold Mine</a> Crow Creek Mine is a family owned and operated Historical and Recreational Gold Mine. You will find everyone from your first time miner just hoping for a few flecks, up to actual gold miners who have been working these grounds on a very serious level.<br />
Panning & Mining // $20 adult, $10 children (7 & under)<br />
<u><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span class="_xdb">Address: </span><span class="_Xbe">601 Crow Creek Rd, Girdwood, AK 99587</span></span></u><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Gold Prospecting Adventures, Jamestown, California</span></b></span></h3>
 <a href="http://www.goldprospecting.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Gold Prospecting Adventures  </a>For over 40 years Gold Prospecting Adventures has offered an exciting variety of gold mining adventures. Located three hours east of San Francisco. Gold Prospecting Adventures is a great introduction for anyone, any age, who wants to find gold and learn something new.<br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><u>Address: 18170 Main St, Jamestown, CA 95327</u></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Gold ‘N Gem Grubbin’ mine, Gold Nugget Ln Cleveland, Georgia</span></b></span></div>
It started as a commercial gold mine and opened to the public in 1984. At <a href="http://www.goldngemgrubbinstore.com/index.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Gold n Gem Grubbin</a> you can pan for gold and screen for gemstones in a convenient sluices sitting comfortably under shade trees with a view of our 7 acre lake. The mine's trained staff will teach you the art of gold panning just like the old timers did it!<br />
What you may Find <b>Gold, Gemstones (Rubies, Emeralds, Sapphires, Amethyst, Garnets)</b>. There is no admission fee, and have free parking and handicap facilities.<br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><u>Address: 75 Gold Nugget Ln, Cleveland, GA 30528, USA</u></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Reed Gold Mine, Cabarrus County, North Carolina</span></b></span></h3>
<a href="http://www.nchistoricsites.org/reed/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Reed Gold Mine</a> is the site of the first documented gold find in the United States. From this discovery, gold mining spread gradually to nearby counties and eventually into other southern states. Reed Mine is a state historic site that belongs to the North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources. Visitors can tour a museum with extensive displays about North Carolina gold mining. In addition, they can explore several hundred feet of restored mine tunnels.<br />
No fee is charged for admission.  Gold panning fee is $3 plus tax per pan.<br />
<u><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Address: 9621 Reed Mine Rd, Midland, NC 28107, USA</span></u><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Big Thunder Gold Mine, Keystone, South Dakota</span></b></span></h3>
<a href="http://www.bigthundermine.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Big Thunder Gold Mine</a> was discovered in 1892 by two German immigrant miners. Today, it contains the most types of rocks, structures and minerals indigenous to the area, and it offers mine tours, a mining museum and gold panning. There is also a full-service eatery and a gift shop. Big Thunder Gold Mine is completely handicap accessible and fun for all ages.<br />
Fees: Adults: $10.95, Children 6-12: $7.95, Children younger than 5 no charge<br />
<u><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Address: 604 Blair St, Keystone, SD 57751, USA</span></u><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Alta Ranch, Ravalli County, Montana</span></b></span></h3>
The <a href="http://altaranch.com/gold-panning.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Alta Ranch</a> is a beautiful place about 4 hours south of Glacier National Park. It is the ultimate place for gold prospecting. Although the town doesn’t officially exist anymore, you can still hunt for gold in the active placer gold mine a few miles upstream of the Alta Ranch.<br />
<u><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Address: 9203 W Fork Rd, Darby, MT 59829, USA</span></u><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Alabama Gold Camp, Randolph County, Alabama</span></u></b></span></h3>
<a href="http://www.alabamagoldcamp.com/home" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Alabama Gold Camp</a> is the best place for prospecting on the East Coast. Located in the heart of the Alabama Gold Belt, the camp is great for beginners or experinced prospectors. With more than 10 miles of gold bering creeks there's enough for everyone. For a mere $5 per person, you can get admission with panning and sluicing included. Children 11 and under are free with an adult. Camping is also available, for only $5/day for “primitive” camping or $30/day for RV hookups. You may bring your own equipment, with costs varying from $15-$60, depending on the size of your dredge (6-inch maximum).<br />
<u><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Address: 1398 Co Road 5, Lineville, AL 36266, USA</span></u><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><a href="https://www.apachetrailtours.com/tours/gold-panning/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Apache Trail Tours</a>, Pinal County, Arizona</span></b></span>A reported 893,000 ounces of gold have been mined in Pinal County. The Mammoth Mine in the Black Hills along with several copper mines south of Miami is credited for most of this gold production.Gold Panning is offered November through April. Tour time availability varies based on temperatures and weather.<br />
Fees: Adult: $85 Per Person, Child: $75 Per Person<br />
<u><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Address: 4650 N Mammoth Mine Rd, Apache Junction, AZ 85119, USA</span></u><br />
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<b><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Gold Daughters, North Star Borough, Alaska</span></span></b></h3>
Whether you are a first time visitor to Alaska, or you have lived here your whole life, there is an unforgettable experience waiting to be found at Gold Daughters. Thier friendly and knowledgeable staff will guide you through the best gold panning in Alaska, and it all starts with a panning lesson.<br />
Fees: $20/person. 5&U free.<br />
<u><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Address: 1671 Steese Hwy, Fairbanks, AK 99712, USA</span></u><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;">Eagle & High Point Gold Mine, Julian, California</span></b></span></h3>
This mine is actually two different mines, High Point Mine and Eagle Mine. The High Point Mine produced more gold then Eagle Mine, but they ended up forming an agreement and working together so that High Point could have access to the Eagle Point Mine’s stamp mill.<br />
Fees: Adults – $10, Kids Age 5–13 – $5, Children Age 4 Younger – $1<br />
<u><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Address: 2320 C St, Julian, CA 92036, USA</span></u><br />
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"> <span style="color: blue;">See also:</span> </span><br />
<a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2016/09/top-spots-for-gem-hunting-in-us.html" rel="" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">Part I: Top Spots For Gem Hunting In The US </span></a><br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/02/part-ii-top-spots-for-gem-hunting-in-us.html" rel="" target="_blank">Part II: Top Spots For Gem Hunting In The US </a></span><br />
<a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/08/california-rainbow-obsidian-is-natural.html" rel="" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;">California Rainbow Obsidian Is a Natural Wonder (PHOTOS)</span></a><br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/08/where-can-you-find-emerald-crystals-in.html" rel="" target="_blank">Where Can You Find Emerald Crystals in The USA? </a></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/06/where-and-how-to-find-lake-superior.html" rel="" target="_blank">What is Lake Superior Agate, and Where Can You Find It? </a></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/06/what-is-petoskey-stone-and-where-can.html" target="_blank">What is Petoskey stone, and Where Can You Find It?</a></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><a href="http://www.geologyin.com/2017/05/what-is-sea-glass-and-where-can-i-find.html" target="_blank">What is Sea Glass, and Where Can You Find It?</a></span></div>

Where to Find Gold in the United States

10 Places Where You Can Still Pan for Gold in Your Family Vacation Naturally occurring gold can be found in almost all fifty states. ...

Geology In